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Abraham LincolnFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaThis article is about the American president. For other uses, seeAbraham Lincoln (disambiguation).Abraham LincolnLincoln in 1863, aged 5416thPresident of the United StatesIn office
March 4, 1861– April 15, 1865Vice PresidentsHannibal Hamlin(1861–1865)
Andrew Johnson(1865)Preceded byJames BuchananSucceeded byAndrew JohnsonMember of theU.S. House of office
March 4, 1847– March 3, 1849Preceded byJohn HenrySucceeded byThomas L. HarrisMember of the Illinois House of RepresentativesIn office
1834–1842Personal detailsBornFebruary 12, 1809
Hodgenville, Kentucky,U.S.DiedApril 15, 1865(aged56)
Petersen House,
Washington, D.C., U.S.Resting placeLincoln Tomb,Oak Ridge Cemetery
Springfield, Illinois, U.S.NationalityAmericanPolitical Union(1864–1865)Spouse(s)Mary Todd(m.1842; his death1865)ChildrenRobert,Edward,Willie, Lincoln and religionSignatureMilitary serviceService/branchIllinois MilitiaYears of service3 months
(April 21, 1832 – July 10, 1832)Rank

Captain
(April 21, 1832 – May 27, 1832)
Private
(May 28, 1832 – July 10, 1832)

OBS:.Discharged from his command and re-enlisted as a Private.Battles/warsBlack Hawk WarThis article is part of a series about
Abraham Lincoln

Family
Congressman

Electoral History
\"Cooper Union Speech\"
Views on Slavery
\"Farewell Address in Illinois\"

President of the United States

First Term

1860

Presidency

American Civil War

Waging War

Emancipation Proclamation

13th Amendment

Second Term

1864

2nd Inauguration
\"Second Inaugural Address\"
Reconstruction

Assassination and legacy

Funeral

Memorials
Depictions

Abraham 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) was the16th President of the United States, serving from March 1861 untilhis assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through itsCivil War—its bloodiest war and its greatest moral, constitutional, and political crisis.[1][2]In doing so, he preserved theUnion, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy.

Born inHodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on thewestern frontierinKentuckyandIndiana. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer inIllinois, aWhig Party leader, and a member of theIllinois House of Representatives, in which he served for twelve years. Elected to theUnited States House of Representativesin 1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, tariffs, and railroads. Because he had originally agreed not to run for a second term in Congress, and because his opposition to theMexican–American Warwas unpopular among Illinois voters, Lincoln returned toSpringfieldand resumed his successful law practice. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the newRepublican Party, which had a statewide majority in Illinois. In 1858, while taking part in aseries of highly publicized debateswith his opponent and rival, DemocratStephen A. Douglas, Lincoln spoke out against the expansion of slavery, but lost the U.S. Senate race to Douglas.

In 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state. With very little support in the slaveholding states of the South, he swept the North and waselected president in 1860. His victory prompted seven southern slave states to form theConfederate States of Americabefore he moved into theWhite House- no compromise or reconciliation was found regarding slavery and secession. Subsequently, on April 12, 1861, a Confederate attack onFort Sumterinspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind theUnionin a declaration of war. As the leader of the moderate faction of the Republican Party, Lincoln confronted Radical Republicans, who demanded harsher treatment of the South,War Democrats, who called for more compromise, anti-war Democrats (calledCopperheads), who despised him, and irreconcilable secessionists, who plotted his assassination. Politically, Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other, by carefully planned politicalpatronage, and by appealing to the American people with his powers of oratory.[3]HisGettysburg Addressbecame an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy.

Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war. His primary goal was to reunite the nation. He suspendedhabeas corpus, leading to the controversialex parte Merrymandecision, and he averted potential British intervention in the war by defusing theTrent Affairin late 1861. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including his most successful general,Ulysses S. Grant. He also made major decisions on Union war strategy, including a naval blockade that shut down the South\'s normal trade, moves to take control of Kentucky and Tennessee, and using gunboats to gain control of the southern river system. Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital atRichmond; each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded. As the war progressed, his complex moves toward ending slavery began with theEmancipation Proclamationof 1863; subsequently, Lincoln used the U.S. Army to protect escaped slaves, encouraged theborder statesto outlaw slavery, and pushed through Congress theThirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which permanently outlawed slavery.

An exceptionally astute politician deeply involved with power issues in each state, Lincoln reached out to the War Democrats and managed his own re-election campaign in the1864 presidential election. Anticipating the war\'s conclusion, Lincoln pushed a moderate view ofReconstruction, seeking to reunite the nation speedily through a policy of generous reconciliation in the face of lingering and bitter divisiveness. On April 14, 1865, five days after the April 9th surrender of Confederate commanding generalRobert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated byJohn Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer.

Lincoln has been consistentlyrankedboth by scholars[4]and the public[5]as one of the three greatest U.S. presidents.

Family and childhoodEarly life and family ancestryMain article:Early life and career of Abraham Lincoln

Abraham Lincoln was born February 12, 1809, the second child ofThomasandNancy Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on theSinking Spring FarminHardin County, Kentucky[6](nowLaRue County). He is a descendant ofSamuel Lincoln, who migrated fromNorfolk, England toHingham, Massachusetts, in 1638. Samuel\'s grandson and great-grandson began the family\'s western migration, which passed throughNew Jersey,Pennsylvania, andVirginia.[7][8]Lincoln\'s paternal grandfather and namesake,Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia toJefferson County, Kentuckyin the 1780s.[9]Captain Lincoln was killed in anIndian raidin 1786. His children, including six-year-old Thomas, the future president\'s father, witnessed the attack.[10][11]After his father\'s murder, Thomas was left to make his own way on the frontier, working at odd jobs in Kentucky and inTennessee, before settling with members of his family in Hardin County, Kentucky, in the early 1800s.[12][13]

Lincoln\'s mother, Nancy, was the daughter of Lucy Shipley Hanks, and was born in what is nowMineral County, West Virginia, then part of Virginia. The identity of Lincoln\'s maternal grandfather is unclear.[14]According to William Ensign Lincoln\'s bookThe Ancestry of Abraham Lincoln, Nancy was the daughter of Joseph Hanks;[15]however, the debate continues over whether she was born out of wedlock. Lucy Hanks migrated to Kentucky with her daughter, Nancy. The two women resided with relatives in Washington County, Kentucky.[14][16]

Thomas Lincoln and Nancy Hanks were married on June 12, 1806, in Washington County, and moved toElizabethtown, Kentucky, following their marriage.[17]They became the parents of three children: Sarah, born on February 10, 1807; Abraham, on February 12, 1809; and another son, Thomas, who died in infancy.[18]Thomas Lincoln bought or leased several farms in Kentucky, including the Sinking Spring farm, where Abraham was born; however, a land title dispute soon forced the Lincolns to move.[19][20]In 1811 the family moved eight miles north, toKnob Creek Farm, where Thomas acquired title to 230 acres (93ha) of land. In 1815 a claimant in another land dispute sought to eject the family from the farm.[20]Of the 816.5 acres that Thomas held in Kentucky, he lost all but 200 acres (81ha) of his land in court disputes over property titles.[21]Frustrated over the lack of security provided by Kentucky courts, Thomas sold the remaining land he held in Kentucky in 1814, and began planning a move toIndiana, where the land survey process was more reliable and the ability for an individual to retain land titles was more secure.[22]

In 1816 the family moved north across theOhio RivertoIndiana, a free, non-slaveholding territory, where they settled in an \"unbroken forest\"[23]in Hurricane Township,Perry County. (Their land in southern Indiana became part ofSpencer County, Indiana, when the county was established in 1818.)[24][25]The farm is preserved as part of theLincoln Boyhood National Memorial. In 1860 Lincoln noted that the family\'s move to Indiana was \"partly on account of slavery\"; but mainly due to land title difficulties in Kentucky.[21][26]During the family\'s years in Kentucky and Indiana, Thomas Lincoln worked as a farmer, cabinetmaker, and carpenter.[27]He owned farms, several town lots and livestock, paid taxes, sat on juries, appraised estates, served on country slave patrols, and guarded prisoners. Thomas and Nancy Lincoln were also members of aSeparate Baptistschurch, which had restrictive moral standards and opposed alcohol, dancing, and slavery.[28]Within a year of the family\'s arrival in Indiana, Thomas claimed title to 160 acres (65ha) of Indiana land. Despite some financial challenges he eventually obtained clear title to 80 acres (32ha) of land in what became known as theLittle Pigeon Creek Communityin Spencer County.[29]Prior to the family\'s move to Illinois in 1830, Thomas had acquired an additional twenty acres of land adjacent to his property.[30]

The young Lincoln in sculpture at Senn Park, Chicago.

Several significant family events took place during Lincoln\'s youth in Indiana. On October 5, 1818, Nancy Lincoln died ofmilk sickness, leaving eleven-year-oldSarahin charge of a household that included her father, nine-year-old Abraham, and Dennis Hanks, Nancy\'s nineteen-year-old orphaned cousin.[31]On December 2, 1819, Lincoln\'s father marriedSarah \"Sally\" Bush Johnston, a widow from Elizabethtown, Kentucky, with three children of her own.[32]Abraham became very close to his stepmother, whom he referred to as \"Mother\".[33][34]Those who knew Lincoln as a teenager later recalled him being very distraught over his sister Sarah\'s death on January 20, 1828, while giving birth to astillbornson.[35][36]

As a youth, Lincoln disliked the hard labor associated with frontier life. Some of his neighbors and family members thought for a time that he was lazy for all his \"reading, scribbling, writing, ciphering, writing Poetry, etc.\",[37][38][39]and must have done it to avoid manual labor. His stepmother also acknowledged he did not enjoy \"physical labor\", but loved to read.[40]Lincoln was largely self-educated. His formal schooling from several itinerant teachers was intermittent, the aggregate of which may have amounted to less than a year; however, he was an avid reader and retained a lifelong interest in learning.[41][42]Family, neighbors, and schoolmates of Lincoln\'s youth recalled that he read and reread theKing James Bible,Aesop\'s Fables,Bunyan\'sThe Pilgrim\'s Progress,Defoe\'sRobinson Crusoe, Weems\'sThe Life of Washington, andFranklin\'sAutobiography, among others.[43][44][45][46]

As he grew into his teens, Lincoln took responsibility for the chores expected of him as one of the boys in the household. He also complied with the customary obligation of a son giving his father all earnings from work done outside the home until the age of twenty-one.[47]Abraham became adept at using an axe. Tall for his age, Lincoln was also strong and athletic.[48]He attained a reputation for brawn and audacity after a very competitive wrestling match with the renowned leader of a group of ruffians known as \"the Clary\'s Grove boys\".[49]

In early March 1830, fearing amilk sicknessoutbreak along the Ohio River, the Lincoln family moved west to Illinois, a non-slaveholding state. They settled on a site inMacon County, Illinois, 10 miles (16km) west ofDecatur.[50][51]Historians disagree on who initiated the move.[52]After the family relocated to Illinois, Abraham became increasingly distant from his father,[53]in part because of his father\'s lack of education, and occasionally lent him money.[54]In 1831, as Thomas and other members of the family prepared to move to anew homesteadinColes County, Illinois, Abraham was old enough to make his own decisions and struck out on his own.[55]Traveling down theSangamon River, he ended up in the village ofNew SaleminSangamon County.[56]Later that spring,Denton Offutt, a New Salem merchant, hired Lincoln and some friends to take goods byflatboatfrom New Salem to New Orleans via the Sangamon, Illinois, and Mississippi rivers. After arriving in New Orleans—and witnessing slavery firsthand—Lincoln returned to New Salem, where he remained for the next six years.[57][58]

Marriage and childrenFurther information:Lincoln family tree,Medical and mental health of Abraham Lincoln, andSexuality of Abraham Lincoln1864 photo of President Lincoln with youngest son,TadMary Todd Lincoln, wife of Abraham Lincoln, age 28

Lincoln\'s first romantic interest wasAnn Rutledge, whom he met when he first moved to New Salem; by 1835, they were in a relationship but not formally engaged. She died at the age of 22 on August 25, 1835, most likely oftyphoid fever.[59]In the early 1830s, he met Mary Owens from Kentucky when she was visiting her sister.[60]

Late in 1836, Lincoln agreed to a match with Mary if she returned to New Salem. Mary did return in November 1836, and Lincoln courted her for a time; however, they both had second thoughts about their relationship. On August 16, 1837, Lincoln wrote Mary a letter suggesting he would not blame her if she ended the relationship. She never replied and the courtship ended.[60]

In 1840, Lincoln became engaged toMary Todd, who was from a wealthy slave-holding family inLexington, Kentucky.[61]They met inSpringfield, Illinois, in December 1839[62]and were engaged the following December.[63]A wedding set for January 1, 1841, was canceled when the two broke off their engagement at Lincoln\'s initiative.[62][64]They later met again at a party and married on November 4, 1842, in the Springfield mansion of Mary\'s married sister.[65]While preparing for the nuptials and feeling anxiety again, Lincoln, when asked where he was going, replied, \"To hell, I suppose.\"[66]

In 1844, the couple boughta housein Springfield near Lincoln\'s law office. Mary Todd Lincoln kept house, often with the help of a relative or hired servant girl.[67]Robert Todd Lincolnwas born in 1843 andEdward Baker Lincoln(Eddie) in 1846. Lincoln \"was remarkably fond of children\",[68]and the Lincolns were not considered to be strict with their children.[69]

Edward died on February 1, 1850, in Springfield, probably of tuberculosis.\"Willie\" Lincolnwas born on December 21, 1850, and died of a fever on February 20, 1862. The Lincolns\' fourth son,Thomas \"Tad\" Lincoln, was born on April 4, 1853, and died of heart failure at the age of 18 on July 16, 1871.[70]Robert was the only child to live to adulthood and have children. His last descendant, great-grandsonRobert Todd Lincoln Beckwith, died in 1985.[71]

The deaths of their sons had profound effects on both parents. Later in life, Mary struggled with the stresses of losing her husband and sons, and Robert Lincoln committed her temporarily to a mental health asylum in 1875.[72]Abraham Lincoln suffered from \"melancholy\", a condition which now is referred to asclinical depression.[73]

Lincoln\'s father-in-law and others of the Todd family were either slave owners or slave traders. Lincoln was close to the Todds, and he and his family occasionally visited the Todd estate in Lexington.[74]He was an affectionate, though often absent, husband and father of four children.

Early career and militia serviceFurther information:Early life and career of Abraham LincolnandAbraham Lincoln in the Black Hawk WarLincoln depicted protecting a Native American from his own men in a scene often related about Lincoln\'s service during theBlack Hawk War.

In 1832, at age 23, Lincoln and a partner bought a small general store on credit inNew Salem, Illinois.[75]Although the economy was booming in the region, the business struggled and Lincoln eventually sold his share. That March he began his political career with his first campaign for theIllinois General Assembly. He had attained local popularity and could draw crowds as a naturalraconteurin New Salem, though he lacked an education, powerful friends, and money, which may be why he lost. He advocated navigational improvements on the Sangamon River.[76][77]

Before the election, Lincoln served as a captain in the Illinois Militia during theBlack Hawk War.[78]Following his return, Lincoln continued his campaign for the August 6 election for the Illinois General Assembly. At 6feet 4inches (193cm),[79]he was tall and \"strong enough to intimidate any rival\". At his first speech, when he saw a supporter in the crowd being attacked, Lincoln grabbed the assailant by his \"neck and the seat of his trousers\" and threw him.[80]Lincoln finished eighth out of 13 candidates (the top four were elected), though he received 277 of the 300 votes cast in the New Salem precinct.[81]

Lincoln served as New Salem\'s postmaster and later as county surveyor, all the while reading voraciously. He then decided to become a lawyer and began teaching himself law by readingBlackstone\'sCommentaries on the Laws of Englandand other law books. Of his learning method, Lincoln stated: \"I studied with nobody\".[82]His second campaign in 1834 was successful. He won election to the state legislature; though he ran as aWhig, many Democrats favored him over a more powerful Whig opponent.[83]

Admitted to the barin 1836,[84]he moved to Springfield, Illinois, and began to practice law underJohn T. Stuart, Mary Todd\'s cousin.[85]Lincoln became an able and successful lawyer with a reputation as a formidable adversary during cross-examinations and closing arguments. He partnered withStephen T. Loganfrom 1841 until 1844. Then Lincoln beganhis practicewithWilliam Herndon, whom Lincoln thought \"a studious young man\".[86]

Successful on his second run for office, Lincoln served four successive terms in theIllinois House of Representativesas a Whig representative from Sangamon County.[87]He supported the construction of theIllinois and Michigan Canal, which he remained involved with later as a Canal Commissioner.[88]In the 1835–36 legislative session, he voted to expand suffrage to white males, whether landowners or not.[89]He was known for his \"free soil\" stance of opposing both slavery andabolitionism. He first articulated this in 1837, saying, \"[The] Institution of slavery is founded on both injustice and bad policy, but the promulgation of abolition doctrines tends rather to increase than abate its evils.\"[90]His stance closely followedHenry Clayin supporting theAmerican Colonization Societyprogram of making the abolition of slavery practical by its advocation and helping the freed slaves to settle inLiberiain Africa.[91]

U.S. House of Representatives, 1847–49Lincoln in his late 30s as a member of theU.S. House of Representatives. Photo taken by one of Lincoln\'s law students around 1846.

From the early 1830s, Lincoln was a steadfast Whig and professed to friends in 1861 to be, \"an old line Whig, a disciple of Henry Clay\".[92]The party, including Lincoln, favored economic modernization in banking, protective tariffs to fundinternal improvementsincluding railroads, and espoused urbanization as well.[93]

In 1846, Lincoln was elected to theU.S. House of Representatives, where he served one two-year term. He was the only Whig in the Illinois delegation, but he showed his party loyalty by participating in almost all votes and making speeches that echoed the party line.[94]Lincoln, in collaboration with abolitionist CongressmanJoshua R. Giddings, wrote a bill to abolish slavery in theDistrict of Columbiawith compensation for the owners, enforcement to capture fugitive slaves, and a popular vote on the matter. He abandoned the bill when it failed to garner sufficient Whig supporters.[95]

On foreign and military policy, Lincoln spoke out against theMexican–American War, which he attributed toPresident Polk\'s desire for \"military glory—that attractive rainbow, that rises in showers of blood\".[96]Lincoln also supported theWilmot Proviso, which, if it had been adopted, would have banned slavery in any U.S. territory won from Mexico.[97]

Lincoln emphasized his opposition to Polk by drafting and introducing hisSpot Resolutions. The war had begun with a Mexican slaughter of American soldiers in territory disputed by Mexico and the U.S. Polk insisted that Mexican soldiers had \"invadedour territoryand shed the blood of our fellow-citizens on ourown soil\".[98][99]Lincoln demanded that Polk show Congress the exact spot on which blood had been shed and prove that the spot was on American soil.[99]

Congress never enacted the resolution or even debated it, the national papers ignored it, and it resulted in a loss of political support for Lincoln in his district. One Illinois newspaper derisively nicknamed him \"spotty Lincoln\".[100][101][102]Lincoln later regretted some of his statements, especially his attack on the presidential war-making powers.[103]

Realizing Clay was unlikely to win the presidency, Lincoln, who had pledged in 1846 to serve only one term in the House, supported GeneralZachary Taylorfor the Whig nomination in the1848 presidential election.[104]Taylor won and Lincoln hoped to be appointed Commissioner of theGeneral Land Office, but that lucrative patronage job went to an Illinois rival,Justin Butterfield, considered by the administration to be a highly skilled lawyer, but in Lincoln\'s view, an \"old fossil\".[105]The administration offered him the consolation prize of secretary or governor of theOregon Territory. This distant territory was a Democratic stronghold, and acceptance of the post would have effectively ended his legal and political career in Illinois, so he declined and resumed his law practice.[106]

Prairie lawyer

Lincoln returned to practicing law in Springfield, handling \"every kind of business that could come before a prairie lawyer\".[107]Twice a year for 16 years, 10 weeks at a time, he appeared in county seats in the midstate region when the county courts were in session.[108]Lincoln handled many transportation cases in the midst of the nation\'s western expansion, particularly the conflicts arising from the operation of river barges under the many new railroad bridges. As a riverboat man, Lincoln initially favored those interests, but ultimately represented whoever hired him.[109]In fact, he later represented a bridge company against a riverboat company in alandmark caseinvolving a canal boat that sank after hitting a bridge.[110][111]In 1849, he receiveda patent for a flotation devicefor the movement of boats in shallow water. The idea was never commercialized, but Lincoln is the only president to hold a patent.[112][113]

In 1851, he represented theAlton & Sangamon Railroadin a dispute with one of its shareholders, James A. Barret, who had refused to pay the balance on his pledge to buy shares in the railroad on the grounds that the company had changed its original train route.[114][115]Lincoln successfully argued that the railroad company was not bound by its original charter extant at the time of Barret\'s pledge; the charter was amended in the public interest to provide a newer, superior, and less expensive route, and the corporation retained the right to demand Barret\'s payment. The decision by theIllinois Supreme Courthas been cited by numerous other courts in the nation.[114]Lincoln appeared before the Illinois Supreme Court in 175 cases, in 51 as sole counsel, of which 31 were decided in his favor.[116]From 1853 to 1860, another of Lincoln\'s largest clients was theIllinois Central Railroad.[117]Lincoln\'s reputation with clients gave rise to his nickname \"Honest Abe.\"[118]

Lincoln\'s most notable criminal trial occurred in 1858 when he defendedWilliam \"Duff\" Armstrong, who was on trial for the murder of James Preston Metzker.[119]The case is famous for Lincoln\'s use of a fact established byjudicial noticein order to challenge the credibility of an eyewitness. After an opposing witness testified seeing the crime in the moonlight, Lincoln produced aFarmers\' Almanacshowing the moon was at a low angle, drastically reducing visibility. Based on this evidence, Armstrong was acquitted.[119]

Lincoln rarely raised objections in the courtroom; but in an 1859 case, where he defended a cousin, Peachy Harrison, who was accused of stabbing another to death, Lincoln angrily protested the judge\'s decision to exclude evidence favorable to his client. Instead of holding Lincoln in contempt of court as was expected, the judge, a Democrat, reversed his ruling, allowing the evidence and acquitting Harrison.[119][120]

Republican politics 1854–60Slavery and a \"House Divided\"Further information:Slave and free statesandAbraham Lincoln and slavery

By the 1850s, slavery was still legal in the southern United States, but had been generally outlawed in the northern states, including Illinois, whose original 1818 Constitution forbade slavery, as required by theNorthwest Ordinance.[121]Lincoln disapproved of slavery, and the spread of slavery to new U.S. territory in the west.[122]He returned to politics to oppose the pro-slaveryKansas–Nebraska Act(1854); this law repealed the slavery-restrictingMissouri Compromise(1820). Senior SenatorStephen A. Douglasof Illinois had incorporatedpopular sovereigntyinto the Act. Douglas\' provision, which Lincoln opposed, specified settlers had the right to determine locally whether to allow slavery in new U.S. territory, rather than have such a decision restricted by the national Congress.[123]

Eric Foner(2010) contrasts the abolitionists and anti-slavery Radical Republicans of the Northeast who saw slavery as a sin, with the conservative Republicans who thought it was bad because it hurt white people and blocked progress. Foner argues that Lincoln was a moderate in the middle, opposing slavery primarily because it violated therepublicanism principlesof theFounding Fathers, especially the equality of all men and democratic self-government as expressed in theDeclaration of Independence.[124]

A portrait ofDred Scott. Lincoln denounced the Supreme Court decision inDred Scott v. Sandfordas part of a conspiracy to extend slavery.

On October 16, 1854, in his \"Peoria Speech\", Lincoln declared his opposition to slavery, which he repeated en route to the presidency.[125]Speaking in his Kentucky accent, with a very powerful voice,[126]he said the Kansas Act had a \"declaredindifference, but as I must think, a covertrealzeal for the spread of slavery. I cannot but hate it. I hate it because of the monstrous injustice of slavery itself. I hate it because it deprives our republican example of its just influence in the world...\"[127]

In late 1854, Lincoln ran as a Whig for the U.S. Senate seat from Illinois. At that time, senators were elected by the state legislature.[128]After leading in the first six rounds of voting in the Illinois assembly, his support began to dwindle, and Lincoln instructed his backers to vote forLyman Trumbull, who defeated opponentJoel Aldrich Matteson.[129]The Whigs had been irreparably split by the Kansas–Nebraska Act. Lincoln wrote, \"I think I am a Whig, but others say there are no Whigs, and that I am an abolitionist [...] I do no more than oppose theextensionof slavery.\"[130]

Drawing on remnants of the old Whig party, and on disenchantedFree Soil,Liberty, andDemocratic Partymembers, he was instrumental in forging the shape of the newRepublican Party.[131]At the1856 Republican National Convention, Lincoln placed second in the contest to become the party\'s candidate for vice president.[132]

In 1857–1858, Douglas broke with PresidentJames Buchanan, leading to a fight for control of the Democratic Party. Some Eastern Republicans even favored the reelection of Douglas for the Senate in 1858, since he had led the opposition to theLecompton Constitution, which would have admitted Kansas as aslave state.[133]In March 1857, the Supreme Court issued its decision inDred Scott v. Sandford; Chief JusticeRoger B. Taneyopined that blacks were not citizens, and derived no rights from the Constitution. Lincoln denounced the decision, alleging it was the product of a conspiracy of Democrats to support theSlave Power.[134]Lincoln argued, \"The authors of the Declaration of Independence never intended \'to say all were equal in color, size, intellect, moral developments, or social capacity\', but they \'did consider all men created equal—equal in certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness\'.\"[135]

After the state Republican party convention nominated him for the U.S. Senate in 1858, Lincoln delivered hisHouse Divided Speech, drawing onMark 3:25, \"A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved—I do not expect the house to fall—but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other.\"[136]The speech created an evocative image of the danger of disunion caused by the slavery debate, and rallied Republicans across the North.[137]The stage was then set for the campaign for statewide election of the Illinois legislature which would, in turn, select Lincoln or Douglas as its U.S. senator.[138]

Lincoln–Douglas debates and Cooper Union speechFurther information:Lincoln–Douglas debatesandCooper Union speechLincoln in 1858, the year ofhis debateswithStephen Douglasover slavery.

The Senate campaign featured the sevenLincoln–Douglas debatesof 1858, the most famous political debates in American history.[139]The principals stood in stark contrast both physically and politically. Lincoln warned that \"The Slave Power\" was threatening the values of republicanism, and accused Douglas of distorting the values of the Founding Fathers thatall men are created equal, while Douglas emphasized hisFreeport Doctrine, that local settlers were free to choose whether to allow slavery or not, and accused Lincoln of having joined the abolitionists.[140]The debates had an atmosphere of a prize fight and drew crowds in the thousands. Lincoln stated Douglas\'popular sovereigntytheory was a threat to the nation\'s morality and that Douglas represented a conspiracy to extend slavery to free states. Douglas said that Lincoln was defying the authority of the U.S. Supreme Court and theDred Scottdecision.[141]

Though the Republican legislative candidates won more popular votes, the Democrats won more seats, and the legislature re-elected Douglas to the Senate. Despite the bitterness of the defeat for Lincoln, his articulation of the issues gave him a national political reputation.[142]In May 1859, Lincoln purchased theIllinois Staats-Anzeiger,a German-language newspaper which was consistently supportive; most of the state\'s 130,000 German Americans voted Democratic but there was Republican support that a German-language paper could mobilize.[143]

On February 27, 1860, New York party leaders invited Lincoln to give aspeech at Cooper Unionto a group of powerful Republicans. Lincoln argued that the Founding Fathers had little use for popular sovereignty and had repeatedly sought to restrict slavery. Lincoln insisted the moral foundation of the Republicans required opposition to slavery, and rejected any \"groping for some middle ground between the right and the wrong\".[144]Despite his inelegant appearance—many in the audience thought him awkward and even ugly[145]—Lincoln demonstrated an intellectual leadership that brought him into the front ranks of the party and into contention for the Republican presidential nomination. JournalistNoah Brooksreported, \"No man ever before made such an impression on his first appeal to a New York audience.\"[146][147]

HistorianDonalddescribed the speech as a \"superb political move for an unannounced candidate, to appear in one rival\'s (William H. Seward) own state at an event sponsored by the second rival\'s (Salmon P. Chase) loyalists, while not mentioning either by name during its delivery\".[148]In response to an inquiry about his presidential intentions, Lincoln said, \"The tasteisin my mouth a little.\"[149]

1860 Presidential nomination and campaignMain articles:Electoral history of Abraham LincolnandUnited States presidential election, 1860\"The Rail Candidate\"—Lincoln\'s 1860 candidacy is depicted as held up by the slavery issue—a slave on the left and party organization on the right.

On May 9–10, 1860, the Illinois Republican State Convention was held in Decatur.[150]Lincoln\'s followers organized a campaign team led byDavid Davis,Norman Judd,Leonard Swett, and Jesse DuBois, and Lincoln received his first endorsement to run for the presidency.[151]Exploiting the embellished legend of his frontier days with his father (clearing the land and splitting fence rails with an ax), Lincoln\'s supporters adopted the label of \"The Rail Candidate\".[152]

On May 18, at theRepublican National Conventionin Chicago, Lincoln\'s friends promised and manipulated and won the nomination on the third ballot, beating candidates such as William H. Seward and Salmon P. Chase. A former Democrat,Hannibal Hamlinof Maine, was nominated for Vice President to balance the ticket. Lincoln\'s success depended on his reputation as a moderate on the slavery issue, and his strong support for Whiggish programs of internal improvements and the protective tariff.[153]

On the third ballot Pennsylvania put him over the top. Pennsylvania iron interests were reassured by his support for protective tariffs.[154]Lincoln\'s managers had been adroitly focused on this delegation as well as the others, while following Lincoln\'s strong dictate to \"Make no contracts that bind me\".[155]

Most Republicans agreed with Lincoln that the North was the aggrieved party, as the Slave Power tightened its grasp on the national government with theDred Scottdecision and the presidency of James Buchanan. Throughout the 1850s, Lincoln doubted the prospects of civil war, and his supporters rejected claims that his election would incite secession.[156]Meanwhile, Douglas was selected as the candidate of the Northern Democrats. Delegates from 11 slave states walked out of theDemocratic convention, disagreeing with Douglas\' position on popular sovereignty, and ultimately selectedJohn C. Breckinridgeas their candidate.[157]

As Douglas and the other candidates went through with their campaigns, Lincoln was the only one of them who gave no speeches. Instead, he monitored the campaign closely and relied on the enthusiasm of the Republican Party. The party did the leg work that produced majorities across the North, and produced an abundance of campaign posters, leaflets, and newspaper editorials. There were thousands of Republican speakers who focused first on the party platform, and second on Lincoln\'s life story, emphasizing his childhood poverty. The goal was to demonstrate the superior power of \"free labor\", whereby a common farm boy could work his way to the top by his own efforts.[158]The Republican Party\'s production of campaign literature dwarfed the combined opposition; aChicago Tribunewriter produced a pamphlet that detailed Lincoln\'s life, and sold 100,000 to 200,000 copies.[159]

PresidencyMain article:Presidency of Abraham Lincoln1860 election and secessionMain articles:United States presidential election, 1860andBaltimore PlotIn 1860, northern and westernelectoralvotes (shown in red) put Lincoln into the White House.1861 inaugural at theCapitol. The rotunda was still under construction.

On November 6, 1860, Lincoln was elected the 16th president of the United States, beating Democrat Stephen A. Douglas, John C. Breckinridge of the Southern Democrats, andJohn Bellof the newConstitutional Union Party. He was the first president from the Republican Party. His victory was entirely due to the strength of his support in the North and West; no ballots were cast for him in 10 of the 15 Southern slave states, and he won only two of 996 counties in all the Southern states.[160]

Lincoln received 1,866,452 votes, Douglas 1,376,957 votes, Breckinridge 849,781 votes, and Bell 588,789 votes. Turnout was 82.2percent, with Lincoln winning the free Northern states, as well as California and Oregon. Douglas won Missouri, and split New Jersey with Lincoln.[161]Bell won Virginia, Tennessee, and Kentucky, and Breckinridge won the rest of the South.[162]

Although Lincoln won only a plurality of the popular vote, his victory in theelectoral collegewas decisive: Lincoln had 180 and his opponents added together had only 123. There werefusion ticketsin which all of Lincoln\'s opponents combined to support the same slate of Electors in New York, New Jersey, and Rhode Island, but even if the anti-Lincoln vote had been combined in every state, Lincoln still would have won a majority in the Electoral College.[163]

The first photographic image of the new president

As Lincoln\'s election became evident, secessionists made clear their intent to leave the Union before he took office the next March.[164]On December 20, 1860, South Carolina took the lead by adopting an ordinance of secession; by February 1, 1861, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed.[165][166]Six of these states then adopted a constitution and declared themselves to be a sovereign nation, theConfederate States of America.[165]The upper South and border states (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas) listened to, but initially rejected, the secessionist appeal.[167]President Buchanan and President-elect Lincoln refused to recognize the Confederacy, declaring secession illegal.[168]The Confederacy selectedJefferson Davisas its provisional President on February 9, 1861.[169]

There were attempts at compromise. TheCrittenden Compromisewould have extended theMissouri Compromiseline of 1820, dividing the territories into slave and free, contrary to the Republican Party\'s free-soil platform.[170]Lincoln rejected the idea, saying, \"I will suffer death before I consent... to any concession or compromise which looks like buying the privilege to take possession of this government to which we have a constitutional right.\"[171]

Lincoln, however, did tacitly support the proposedCorwin Amendmentto the Constitution, which passed Congress before Lincoln came into office and was then awaiting ratification by the states. That proposed amendment would have protected slavery in states where it already existed and would have guaranteed that Congress would not interfere with slavery without Southern consent.[172][173]A few weeks before the war, Lincoln sent a letter to every governor informing them Congress had passed a joint resolution to amend the Constitution.[174]Lincoln was open to the possibility of a constitutional convention to make further amendments to the Constitution.[175]

En route to his inauguration by train, Lincoln addressed crowds and legislatures across the North.[176]The president-elect thenevaded possible assassinsin Baltimore, who were uncovered by Lincoln\'s head of security,Allan Pinkerton. On February 23, 1861, he arrived in disguise in Washington, D.C., which was placed under substantial military guard.[177]Lincoln directed hisinaugural addressto the South, proclaiming once again that he had no intention, or inclination, to abolish slavery in the Southern states:

Apprehension seems to exist among the people of the Southern States that by the accession of a Republican Administration their property and their peace and personal security are to be endangered. There has never been any reasonable cause for such apprehension. Indeed, the most ample evidence to the contrary has all the while existed and been open to their inspection. It is found in nearly all the published speeches of him who now addresses you. I do but quote from one of those speeches when I declare that \"I have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery in the States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so.\"

— First inaugural address, 4 March 1861[178]

The President ended his address with an appeal to the people of the South: \"We are not enemies, but friends. We must not be enemies... The mystic chords of memory, stretching from every battlefield, and patriot grave, to every living heart and hearthstone, all over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the Union, when again touched, as surely they will be, by the better angels of our nature.\"[179]The failure of thePeace Conference of 1861signaled that legislative compromise was impossible. By March 1861, no leaders of the insurrection had proposed rejoining the Union on any terms. Meanwhile, Lincoln and the Republican leadership agreed that the dismantling of the Union could not be tolerated.[180]Lincoln said as the war was ending:

Both parties deprecated war, but one of them would make war rather than let the Nation survive, and the other would accept war rather than let it perish, and the war came.[181]Beginning of the warTheneutralityof this article isdisputed.Relevant discussion may be found on thetalk page. Please do not remove this message untilconditions to do so are met.(January 2015)Main articles:American Civil WarandBattle of Fort SumterMajor Anderson, Ft. Sumter commander

The commander of Fort Sumter, South Carolina,Major Robert Anderson, sent a request for provisions to Washington, and the execution of Lincoln\'s order to meet that request was seen by the secessionists as an act of war. On April 12, 1861, Confederate forces fired on Union troops atFort Sumter, forcing them to surrender, and began the war. HistorianAllan Nevinsargued that the newly inaugurated Lincoln made three miscalculations: underestimating the gravity of the crisis, exaggerating the strength of Unionist sentiment in the South, and not realizing the Southern Unionists were insisting there be no invasion.[182]

William Tecumseh Shermantalked to Lincoln during inauguration week and was \"sadly disappointed\" at his failure to realize that \"the country was sleeping on a volcano\" and that the South was preparing for war.[183]Donald concludes that, \"His repeated efforts to avoid collision in the months between inauguration and the firing on Ft. Sumter showed he adhered to his vow not to be the first to shed fraternal blood. But he also vowed not to surrender the forts. The only resolution of these contradictory positions was for the confederates to fire the first shot; they did just that.\"[184]

On April 15, Lincoln called on all the states to send detachments totaling 75,000 troops to recapture forts, protect Washington, and \"preserve the Union\", which, in his view, still existed intact despite the actions of the seceding states. This call forced the states to choose sides. Virginia declared its secession and was rewarded with the Confederate capital, despite the exposed position ofRichmondso close to Union lines. North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas also voted for secession over the next two months. Secession sentiment was strong in Missouri and Maryland, but did not prevail; Kentucky tried to be neutral.[185]The Confederate attack on Fort Sumter rallied Americans north of theMason-Dixon lineto the defense of the American nation. Historian Allan Nevins says:

The thunderclap of Sumter produced a startling crystallization of Northern sentiment... Anger swept the land. From every side came news of mass meetings, speeches, resolutions, tenders of business support, the muster of companies and regiments, the determined action of governors and legislatures.\"[186][187]

States sent Union regiments south in response to Lincoln\'s call to save the capital and confront the rebellion. On April 19, mobs in Baltimore, which controlled the rail links,attacked Union troopswho were changing trains, and local leaders\' groups later burned critical rail bridges to the capital. The Army responded by arrestinglocal Marylandofficials. Lincoln suspended the writ ofhabeas corpusin areas the army felt it needed to secure for troops to reach Washington.[188]John Merryman, a Maryland official involved in hindering the U.S. troop movements, petitioned Supreme Court Chief Justice and Marylander,Roger B. Taney, author of the controversial pro-slaveryDred Scottopinion, to issue a writ ofhabeas corpus,and in June Taney, acting as a circuit judge and not speaking for the Supreme Court, issued the writ, because in his opinion only Congress could suspend the writ. Lincoln continued the army policy that the writ was suspended in limited areas despite theEx parte Merrymanruling.[189][190]

Assuming command for the Union in the war

After theBattle of Fort Sumter, Lincoln realized the importance of taking immediate executive control of the war and making an overall strategy to put down the rebellion. Lincoln encountered an unprecedented political and military crisis, and he responded ascommander-in-chief, using unprecedented powers. He expanded his war powers, and imposed a blockade on all the Confederate shipping ports, disbursed funds before appropriation by Congress, and after suspendinghabeas corpus, arrested and imprisoned thousands of suspected Confederate sympathizers. Lincoln was supported by Congress and the northern public for these actions. In addition, Lincoln had to contend with reinforcing strong Union sympathies in the border slave states and keeping the war from becoming an international conflict.[191]

\"Running the \'Machine\'\": An 1864 political cartoon takes a swing at Lincoln\'s administration—featuringWilliam Fessenden,Edwin Stanton,William Seward,Gideon Welles, Lincoln and others.

The war effort was the source of continued disparagement of Lincoln, and dominated his time and attention. From the start, it was clear that bipartisan support would be essential to success in the war effort, and any manner of compromise alienated factions on both sides of the aisle, such as the appointment of Republicans and Democrats to command positions in the Union Army. Copperheads criticized Lincoln for refusing to compromise on the slavery issue. Conversely, the Radical Republicans criticized him for moving too slowly in abolishing slavery.[192]On August 6, 1861, Lincoln signed theConfiscation Actthat authorized judiciary proceedings to confiscate and free slaves who were used to support the Confederate war effort. In practice, the law had little effect, but it did signal political support for abolishing slavery in the Confederacy.[193]

In late August 1861, GeneralJohn C. Frémont, the 1856 Republican presidential nominee, issued, without consulting his superiors in Washington, a proclamation ofmartial lawin Missouri. He declared that any citizen found bearing arms could becourt-martialedand shot, and that slaves of persons aiding the rebellion would be freed. Frémont was already under a cloud with charges of negligence in his command of theDepartment of the Westcompounded with allegations of fraud and corruption. Lincoln overruled Frémont\'s proclamation. Lincoln believed that Fremont\'s emancipation was political; neither militarily necessary nor legal.[194]After Lincoln acted, Union enlistments from Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri increased by over 40,000 troops.[195]

TheTrent Affairof late 1861 threatened war with Great Britain. The U.S. Navy illegally intercepted a British merchant ship, theTrent, on the high seas and seized two Confederate envoys; Britain protested vehemently while the U.S. cheered. Lincoln resolved the issue by releasing the two men and war was successfully averted with Britain.[196]Lincoln\'s foreign policy approach had been initially hands off, due to his inexperience; he left most diplomacy appointments and other foreign policy matters to his Secretary of State, William Seward. Seward\'s initial reaction to theTrentaffair, however, was too bellicose, so Lincoln also turned to SenatorCharles Sumner, the chairman of theSenate Foreign Relations Committeeand an expert in British diplomacy.[197]

To learn technical military terms, Lincoln borrowed and studiedHenry Halleck\'s book,Elements of Military Art and Sciencefrom theLibrary of Congress.[198]Lincoln painstakingly monitored the telegraphic reports coming into theWar Departmentin Washington, D.C. He kept close tabs on all phases of the military effort, consulted with governors, and selected generals based on their past success (as well as their state and party). In January 1862, after many complaints of inefficiency and profiteering in the War Department, Lincoln replacedSimon CameronwithEdwin StantonasWar Secretary. Stanton was a staunchly Unionist pro-business conservative Democrat who moved toward the Radical Republican faction. Nevertheless, he worked more often and more closely with Lincoln than any other senior official. \"Stanton and Lincoln virtually conducted the war together,\" say Thomas and Hyman.[199]

In terms of war strategy, Lincoln articulated two priorities: to ensure that Washington was well-defended, and to conduct an aggressive war effort that would satisfy the demand in the North for prompt, decisive victory; major Northern newspaper editors expected victory within 90 days.[200]Twice a week, Lincoln would meet with his cabinet in the afternoon, and occasionally Mary Lincoln would force him to take a carriage ride because she was concerned he was working too hard.[201]Lincoln learned from his chief of staff General Henry Halleck, a student of the European strategistJomini, of the critical need to control strategic points, such as the Mississippi River;[202]he also knew well the importance ofVicksburgand understood the necessity of defeating the enemy\'s army, rather than simply capturing territory.[203]

General McClellan

After the Union defeat at theFirst Battle of Bull Runand the retirement of the agedWinfield Scottin late 1861, Lincoln appointed Major GeneralGeorge B. McClellangeneral-in-chief of all the Union armies.[204]McClellan, a young West Point graduate, railroad executive, and Pennsylvania Democrat, took several months to plan and attempt hisPeninsula Campaign, longer than Lincoln wanted. The campaign\'s objective was to capture Richmond by moving theArmy of the Potomacby boat to the peninsula and then overland to the Confederate capital. McClellan\'s repeated delays frustrated Lincoln and Congress, as did his position that no troops were needed to defend Washington. Lincoln insisted on holding some of McClellan\'s troops in defense of the capital; McClellan, who consistently overestimated the strength of Confederate troops, blamed this decision for the ultimate failure of the Peninsula Campaign.[205]

Lincoln andGeorge McClellanafter theBattle of Antietamin 1862.

Lincoln removed McClellan as general-in-chief and appointed Henry Wager Halleck in March 1862, after McClellan\'s \"Harrison\'s Landing Letter\", in which he offered unsolicited political advice to Lincoln urging caution in the war effort.[206]McClellan\'s letter incensed Radical Republicans, who successfully pressured Lincoln to appointJohn Pope, a Republican, as head of the newArmy of Virginia. Pope complied with Lincoln\'s strategic desire to move toward Richmond from the north, thus protecting the capital from attack.[207]

However, lacking requested reinforcements from McClellan, now commanding the Army of the Potomac, Pope was soundly defeated at theSecond Battle of Bull Runin the summer of 1862, forcing the Army of the Potomac to defend Washington for a second time.[207]The war also expanded with naval operations in 1862 when theCSSVirginia, formerly the USSMerrimack, damaged or destroyed three Union vessels in Norfolk, Virginia, before being engaged and damaged by theUSSMonitor. Lincoln closely reviewed the dispatches and interrogated naval officers during their clash in theBattle of Hampton Roads.[208]

Despite his dissatisfaction with McClellan\'s failure to reinforce Pope, Lincoln was desperate, and restored him to command of all forces around Washington, to the dismay of all in his cabinet but Seward.[209]Two days after McClellan\'s return to command, GeneralRobert E. Lee\'s forces crossed thePotomac Riverinto Maryland, leading to theBattle of Antietamin September 1862.[210]The ensuing Union victory was among the bloodiest in American history, but it enabled Lincoln to announce that he would issue anEmancipation Proclamationin January. Having composed the Proclamation some time earlier, Lincoln had waited for a military victory to publish it to avoid it being perceived as the product of desperation.[211]

McClellan then resisted the President\'s demand that he pursue Lee\'s retreating and exposed army, while his counterpart GeneralDon Carlos Buelllikewise refused orders to move theArmy of the Ohioagainst rebel forces in Eastern Tennessee. As a result, Lincoln replaced Buell withWilliam Rosecrans; and, after the 1862 midterm elections, he replaced McClellan with RepublicanAmbrose Burnside. Both of these replacements were political moderates and prospectively more supportive of the Commander-in-Chief.[212]

Union soldiers before Marye\'s Heights,Fredericksburg, just prior to the battle of May 3, 1863.

Burnside, against the advice of the president, prematurely launched an offensive across theRappahannock Riverand was stunninglydefeated by Lee at Fredericksburgin December. Not only had Burnside been defeated on the battlefield, but his soldiers were disgruntled and undisciplined. Desertions during 1863 were in the thousands and they increased after Fredericksburg.[213]Lincoln brought inJoseph Hooker, despite his record of loose talk about the need for a military dictatorship.[214]

Themid-term electionsin 1862 brought the Republicans severe losses due to sharp disfavor with the administration over its failure to deliver a speedy end to the war, as well as rising inflation, new high taxes, rumors of corruption, the suspension ofhabeas corpus,the military draft law, and fears that freed slaves would undermine the labor market. The Emancipation Proclamation announced in September gained votes for the Republicans in the rural areas of New England and the upper Midwest, but it lost votes in the cities and the lower Midwest.[215]

While Republicans were discouraged, Democrats were energized and did especially well in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and New York. The Republicans did maintain their majorities in Congress and in the major states, except New York. The CincinnatiGazettecontended that the voters were \"depressed by the interminable nature of this war, as so far conducted, and by the rapid exhaustion of the national resources without progress\".[215]

In the spring of 1863, Lincoln was optimistic about upcoming military campaigns to the point of thinking the end of the war could be near if a string of victories could be put together; these plans included Hooker\'s attack on Lee north of Richmond, Rosecrans\' on Chattanooga, Grant\'s on Vicksburg, and a naval assault on Charleston.[216]

Hooker was routed by Lee at theBattle of Chancellorsvillein May,[217]but continued to command his troops for some weeks. He ignored Lincoln\'s order to divide his troops, and possibly force Lee to do the same inHarper\'s Ferry, and tendered his resignation, which Lincoln accepted. He was replaced byGeorge Meade, who followed Lee into Pennsylvania for theGettysburg Campaign, which was a victory for the Union, though Lee\'s army avoided capture. At the same time, after initial setbacks, Grant laid siege to Vicksburg and the Union navy attained some success in Charleston harbor.[218]After the Battle of Gettysburg, Lincoln clearly understood that his military decisions would be more effectively carried out by conveying his orders through his War Secretary or his general-in-chief on to his generals, who resented his civilian interference with their own plans. Even so, he often continued to give detailed directions to his generals as ProclamationMain articles:Abraham Lincoln and slaveryandEmancipation ProclamationLincoln presents the first draft of the Emancipation Proclamation to his cabinet. Painted byFrancis Bicknell Carpenterin 1864

Lincoln understood that the Federal government\'s power to end slavery was limited by the Constitution, which before 1865, committed the issue to individual states. He argued before and during his election that the eventual extinction of slavery would result from preventing its expansion into new U.S. territory. At the beginning of the war, he also sought to persuade the states to acceptcompensated emancipationin return for their prohibition of slavery. Lincoln believed that curtailing slavery in these ways would economically expunge it, as envisioned by theFounding Fathers, under the constitution.[220]President Lincoln rejected two geographically limited emancipation attempts by Major General John C. Frémont in August 1861 and by Major GeneralDavid Hunterin May 1862, on the grounds that it was not within their power, and it would upset the border states loyal to the Union.[221]

On June 19, 1862, endorsed by Lincoln, Congress passed an act banning slavery on all federal territory. In July 1862, the SecondConfiscation Actwas passed, which set up court procedures that could free the slaves of anyone convicted of aiding the rebellion. Although Lincoln believed it was not within Congress\'s power to free the slaves within the states, he approved the bill in deference to the legislature. He felt such action could only be taken by the Commander-in-Chief using war powers granted to the president by the Constitution, and Lincoln was planning to take that action. In that month, Lincoln discussed a draft of the Emancipation Proclamation with his cabinet. In it, he stated that \"as a fit and necessary military measure, on January 1, 1863, all persons held as slaves in the Confederate states will thenceforward, and forever, be free\".[222]

Privately, Lincoln concluded at this point that the slave base of the Confederacy had to be eliminated. However Copperheads argued that emancipation was a stumbling block to peace and reunification. Republican editorHorace Greeleyof the highly influentialNew York Tribunefell for the ploy,[223]and Lincoln refuted it directly in a shrewd letter of August 22, 1862. Although he said he personally wished all men could be free, Lincoln stated that the primary goal of his actions as the U.S. president (he used the first person pronoun and explicitly refers to his \"official duty\") was that of preserving the Union:[224]

My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or to destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing any slave I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone I would also do that. What I do about slavery, and the colored race, I do because I believe it helps to save the Union; and what I forbear, I forbear because I do not believe it would help to save the Union... [¶] I have here stated my purpose according to my view of official duty; and I intend no modification of my oft-expressed personal wish that all men everywhere could be free.[225]

The Emancipation Proclamation, issued on September 22, 1862, and put into effect on January 1, 1863, declared free the slaves in 10 states not then under Union control, with exemptions specified for areas already under Union control in two states.[226]Lincoln spent the next 100 days preparing the army and the nation for emancipation, while Democrats rallied their voters in the 1862 off-year elections by warning of the threat freed slaves posed to northern whites.[227]

Once the abolition of slavery in the rebel states became a military objective, as Union armies advanced south, more slaves were liberated until all three million of them in Confederate territory were freed. Lincoln\'s comment on the signing of the Proclamation was: \"I never, in my life, felt more certain that I was doing right, than I do in signing this paper.\"[228]For some time, Lincoln continued earlier plans to set upcoloniesfor the newly freed slaves. He commented favorably on colonization in the Emancipation Proclamation, but all attempts at such a massive undertaking failed.[229]A few days after Emancipation was announced, 13 Republican governors met at theWar Governors\' Conference; they supported the president\'s Proclamation, but suggested the removal of General George B. McClellan as commander of the Union Army.[230]

Enlisting former slaves in the military was official government policy after the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation. By the spring of 1863, Lincoln was ready to recruit black troops in more than token numbers. In a letter toAndrew Johnson, the military governor of Tennessee, encouraging him to lead the way in raising black troops, Lincoln wrote, \"The bare sight of 50,000 armed and drilled black soldiers on the banks of the Mississippi would end the rebellion at once\".[231]By the end of 1863, at Lincoln\'s direction, GeneralLorenzo Thomashad recruited 20 regiments of blacks from the Mississippi Valley.[232]Frederick Douglassonce observed of Lincoln: \"In his company, I was never reminded of my humble origin, or of my unpopular color\".[233]

Gettysburg Address (1863)Main article:Gettysburg AddressThe only confirmed photo of Abraham Lincoln at Gettysburg, some three hours beforethe speech.

With the great Union victory at theBattle of Gettysburgin July 1863, and the defeat of the Copperheads in the Ohio election in the fall, Lincoln maintained a strong base of party support and was in a strong position to redefine the war effort, despite theNew York City draft riots. The stage was set for his address at the Gettysburg battlefield cemetery on November 19, 1863.[234]Defying Lincoln\'s prediction that \"the world will little note, nor long remember what we say here\", the Address became the most quoted speech in American history.[235]

In 272 words, and three minutes, Lincoln asserted the nation was born not in 1789, but in 1776, \"conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal\". He defined the war as an effort dedicated to these principles of liberty and equality for all. The emancipation of slaves was now part of the national war effort. He declared that the deaths of so many brave soldiers would not be in vain, that slavery would end as a result of the losses, and the future of democracy in the world would be assured, that \"government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth\". Lincoln concluded that the Civil War had a profound objective: a new birth of freedom in the nation.[236][237]

General GrantPresident Lincoln (center right) with, from left, GeneralsShermanandGrantand AdmiralPorter–1868 paintingof events aboard theRiver Queenin March 1865

Meade\'s failure to capture Lee\'s army as it retreated from Gettysburg, and the continued passivity of the Army of the Potomac, persuaded Lincoln that a change in command was needed. GeneralUlysses S. Grant\'s victories at theBattle of Shilohand in theVicksburg campaignimpressed Lincoln and made Grant a strong candidate to head the Union Army. Responding to criticism of Grant after Shiloh, Lincoln had said, \"I can\'t spare this man. He fights.\"[238]With Grant in command, Lincoln felt the Union Army could relentlessly pursue a series of coordinated offensives in multiple theaters, and have a top commander who agreed on the use of black troops.[239]

Nevertheless, Lincoln was concerned that Grant might be considering a candidacy for President in 1864, as McClellan was. Lincoln arranged for an intermediary to make inquiry into Grant\'s political intentions, and being assured that he had none, submitted to the Senate Grant\'s promotion to commander of the Union Army. He obtained Congress\'s consent to reinstate for Grant the rank of Lieutenant General, which no officer had held since George Washington.[240]

Grant waged his bloodyOverland Campaignin 1864. This is often characterized as awar of attrition, given high Union losses at battles such as theBattle of the WildernessandCold Harbor. Even though they had the advantage of fighting on the defensive, the Confederate forces had \"almost as high a percentage of casualties as the Union forces\".[241]The high casualty figures of the Union alarmed the North; Grant had lost a third of his army, and Lincoln asked what Grant\'s plans were, to which the general replied, \"I propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer.\"[242]

The Confederacy lacked reinforcements, so Lee\'s army shrank with every costly battle. Grant\'s army moved south, crossed theJames River, forcing a siege and trench warfare outsidePetersburg, Virginia. Lincoln then made an extended visit to Grant\'s headquarters at City Point, Virginia. This allowed the president to confer in person with Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman about the hostilities, as Sherman coincidentally managed a hasty visit to Grant from his position in North Carolina.[243]Lincoln and the Republican Party mobilized support for the draft throughout the North, and replaced the Union losses.[244]

Lincoln authorized Grant to target the Confederate infrastructure—such as plantations, railroads, and bridges—hoping to destroy the South\'s morale and weaken its economic ability to continue fighting. Grant\'s move to Petersburg resulted in the obstruction of three railroads between Richmond and the South. This strategy allowed Generals Sherman andPhilip Sheridanto destroy plantations and towns in Virginia\'sShenandoah Valley. The damage caused bySherman\'s March to the Seathrough Georgia in 1864 was limited to a 60-mile (97km) swath, but neither Lincoln nor his commanders saw destruction as the main goal, but rather defeat of the Confederate armies.Mark E. Neely Jr.has argued that there was no effort to engage in \"total war\" against civilians which he believed did take place during World War II.[245][vague]

Confederate generalJubal Anderson Earlybegan a series of assaults in the North that threatened the Capital. During Early\'sraid on Washington, D.C.in 1864, Lincoln was watching the combat from an exposed position; CaptainOliver Wendell Holmesshouted at him, \"Get down, you damn fool, before you get shot!\"[246]After repeated calls on Grant to defend Washington, Sheridan was appointed and the threat from Early was dispatched.[247]

As Grant continued to wear down Lee\'s forces, efforts to discuss peace began. Confederate Vice PresidentStephensled a group to meet with Lincoln, Seward, and others atHampton Roads. Lincoln refused to allow any negotiation with the Confederacy as a coequal; his sole objective was an agreement to end the fighting and the meetings produced no results.[248]On April 1, 1865, Grant successfully outflanked Lee\'s forces in theBattle of Five Forksand nearly encircled Petersburg, and the Confederate government evacuated Richmond. Days later, when that city fell, Lincoln visited the vanquished Confederate capital; as he walked through the city, white Southerners were stone-faced, butfreedmengreeted him as a hero. On April 9, Lee surrendered to Grant atAppomattoxand the war was effectively over.[249]

1864 re-electionFile:LINCOLN, Abraham-President (BEP engraved portrait).jpgBEPengraved portrait of Lincoln as President.Main articles:Electoral history of Abraham LincolnandUnited States presidential election, 1864

While the war was still being waged, Lincoln faced reelection in 1864. Lincoln was a master politician, bringing together—and holding together—all the main factions of the Republican Party, and bringing inWar Democratssuch asEdwin M. Stantonand Andrew Johnson as well. Lincoln spent many hours a week talking to politicians from across the land and using his patronage powers—greatly expanded over peacetime—to hold the factions of his party together, build support for his own policies, and fend off efforts by Radicals to drop him from the 1864 ticket.[250][251]At its 1864 convention, the Republican Party selected Johnson, a War Democrat from the Southern state of Tennessee, as his running mate. To broaden his coalition to include War Democrats as well as Republicans, Lincoln ran under the label of the newUnion Party.[252]

When Grant\'s 1864 spring campaigns turned into bloody stalemates and Union casualties mounted, the lack of military success wore heavily on the President\'s re-election prospects, and many Republicans across the country feared that Lincoln would be defeated. Sharing this fear, Lincoln wrote and signed a pledge that, if he should lose the election, he would still defeat the Confederacy before turning over the White House:[253]

This morning, as for some days past, it seems exceedingly probable that this Administration will not be re-elected. Then it will be my duty to so co-operate with the President elect, as to save the Union between the election and the inauguration; as he will have secured his election on such ground that he cannot possibly save it afterward.[254]

Lincoln did not show the pledge to his cabinet, but asked them to sign the sealed envelope.

Anelectorallandslide (in red) for Lincoln in the 1864 election, southern states (brown) and territories (light brown) not in playLincoln\'s second inaugural address in 1865 at the almost completed Capitol building

While the Democratic platform followed the \"Peace wing\" of the party and called the war a \"failure\", their candidate, General George B. McClellan, supported the war and repudiated the platform. Lincoln provided Grant with more troops and mobilized his party to renew its support of Grant in the war effort. Sherman\'s capture of Atlanta in September andDavid Farragut\'s capture of Mobile ended defeatist jitters;[255]the Democratic Party was deeply split, with some leaders and most soldiers openly for Lincoln. By contrast, the National Union Party was united and energized as Lincoln made emancipation the central issue, and state Republican parties stressed theperfidyof the Copperheads.[256]On November 8, Lincoln was re-elected in a landslide, carrying all but three states, and receiving 78 percent of the Union soldiers\' vote.[253][257]

On March 4, 1865, Lincoln delivered hissecond inaugural address. In it, he deemed the high casualties on both sides to be God\'s will. HistorianMark Nollconcludes it ranks \"among the small handful of semi-sacred texts by which Americans conceive their place in the world\".[258]Lincoln said:

Fondly do we hope—fervently do we pray—that this mighty scourge of war may speedily pass away. Yet, if God wills that it continue, until all the wealth piled by thebond-man\'s250 years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with the lash, shall be paid by another drawn with the sword, as was said 3,000 years ago, so still it must be said, \"the judgments of the Lord, are true and righteous altogether\". With malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in; to bind up the nation\'s wounds; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow, and his orphan—to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace, among ourselves, and with all nations.[259]

ReconstructionMain article:Reconstruction Era

Reconstruction began during the war, as Lincoln and his associates anticipated questions of how to reintegrate the conquered southern states, and how to determine the fates of Confederate leaders and freed slaves. Shortly after Lee\'s surrender, a general had asked Lincoln how the defeated Confederates should be treated, and Lincoln replied, \"Let \'em up easy.\"[260]In keeping with that sentiment, Lincoln led the moderates regarding Reconstruction policy, and was opposed by the Radical Republicans, under Rep.Thaddeus Stevens, Sen.Charles Sumnerand Sen.Benjamin Wade, political allies of the president on other issues. Determined to find a course that would reunite the nation and not alienate the South, Lincoln urged that speedy elections under generous terms be held throughout the war. HisAmnesty Proclamationof December 8, 1863, offered pardons to those who had not held a Confederate civil office, had not mistreated Union prisoners, and would sign an oath of allegiance.[261]

A political cartoon of Vice President Andrew Johnson (a former tailor) and Lincoln, 1865, entitled \"The \'Rail Splitter\' At Work Repairing the Union.\" The caption reads (Johnson):Take it quietly Uncle Abe and I will draw it closer than ever.(Lincoln):A few more stitches Andy and the good old Union will be mended.

As Southern states were subdued, critical decisions had to be made as to their leadership while their administrations were re-formed. Of special importance were Tennessee and Arkansas, where Lincoln appointed GeneralsAndrew JohnsonandFrederick Steeleas military governors, respectively. In Louisiana, Lincoln ordered GeneralNathaniel P. Banksto promote a plan that would restore statehood when 10 percent of the voters agreed to it. Lincoln\'s Democratic opponents seized on these appointments to accuse him of using the military to ensure his and the Republicans\' political aspirations. On the other hand, the Radicals denounced his policy as too lenient, and passed their own plan, theWade-Davis Bill, in 1864. When Lincoln vetoed the bill, the Radicals retaliated by refusing to seat representatives elected from Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee.[262]

Lincoln\'s appointments were designed to keep both the moderate and Radical factions in harness. To fill Chief Justice Taney\'s seat on the Supreme Court, he named the choice of the Radicals, Salmon P. Chase, who Lincoln believed would uphold the emancipation and paper money policies.[263]

After implementing the Emancipation Proclamation, which did not apply to every state, Lincoln increased pressure on Congress to outlaw slavery throughout the entire nation with a constitutional amendment. Lincoln declared that such an amendment would \"clinch the whole matter\".[264]By December 1863, a proposed constitutional amendment that would outlaw slavery was brought to Congress for passage. This first attempt at an amendment failed to pass, falling short of the required two-thirds majority on June 15, 1864, in the House of Representatives. Passage of the proposed amendment became part of the Republican/Unionist platform in the election of 1864. After a long debate in the House, a second attempt passed Congress on January 31, 1865, and was sent to the state legislatures for ratification.[265][266]Upon ratification, it became theThirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitutionon December 6, 1865.[267]

As the war drew to a close, Lincoln\'s presidential Reconstruction for the South was in flux; having believed the federal government had limited responsibility to the millions of freedmen. He signed into law Senator Charles Sumner\'sFreedmen\'s Bureaubill that set up a temporary federal agency designed to meet the immediate material needs of former slaves. The law assigned land for a lease of three years with the ability to purchase title for the freedmen. Lincoln stated that his Louisiana plan did not apply to all states under Reconstruction. Shortly before his assassination, Lincoln announced he had a new plan for southern Reconstruction. Discussions with his cabinet revealed Lincoln planned short-term military control over southern states, until readmission under the control of southern Unionists.[268]

Historians agree that it is impossible to predict exactly what Lincoln would have done about Reconstruction if he had lived, but they make projections based on his known policy positions and political acumen. Lincoln biographersJames G. RandallandRichard Current, according to David Lincove, argue that:

It is likely that had he lived, Lincoln would have followed a policy similar to Johnson\'s, that he would have clashed with congressional Radicals, that he would have produced a better result for the freedmen than occurred, and that his political skills would have helped him avoid Johnson\'s mistakes.[269]

Eric Fonerargues that:

Unlike Sumner and other Radicals, Lincoln did not see Reconstruction as an opportunity for a sweeping political and social revolution beyond emancipation. He had long made clear his opposition to the confiscation and redistribution of land. He believed, as most Republicans did in April 1865, that the voting requirements should be determined by the states. He assumed that political control in the South would pass to white Unionists, reluctant secessionists, and forward-looking former Confederates. But time and again during the war, Lincoln, after initial opposition, had come to embrace positions first advanced by abolitionists and Radical Republicans.... Lincoln undoubtedly would have listened carefully to the outcry for further protection for the former slaves... It is entirely plausible to imagine Lincoln and Congress agreeing on a Reconstruction policy that encompassed federal protection for basic civil rights plus limited black suffrage, along the lines Lincoln proposed just before his death.\"[270]Redefining the republic and republicanismLincoln in February 1865, about two months before his death.

The successful reunification of the states had consequences for the name of the country. The term \"the United States\" has historically been used, sometimes in the plural (\"these United States\"), and other times in the singular, without any particular grammatical consistency. The Civil War was a significant force in the eventual dominance of the singular usage by the end of the 19th century.[271]

In recent years, historians such as Harry Jaffa, Herman Belz, John Diggins, Vernon Burton and Eric Foner have stressed Lincoln\'s redefinition ofrepublican values. As early as the 1850s, a time when most political rhetoric focused on the sanctity of the Constitution, Lincoln redirected emphasis to the Declaration of Independence as the foundation of American political values—what he called the \"sheet anchor\" of republicanism.[272]The Declaration\'s emphasis on freedom and equality for all, in contrast to the Constitution\'s tolerance of slavery, shifted the debate. As Diggins concludes regarding the highly influential Cooper Union speech of early 1860, \"Lincoln presented Americans a theory of history that offers a profound contribution to the theory and destiny of republicanism itself.\"[273]His position gained strength because he highlighted the moral basis of republicanism, rather than its legalisms.[274]Nevertheless, in 1861, Lincoln justified the war in terms of legalisms (the Constitution was a contract, and for one party to get out of a contract all the other parties had to agree), and then in terms of the national duty to guarantee a republican form of government in every state.[275]Burton (2008) argues that Lincoln\'s republicanism was taken up by the Freedmen as they were emancipated.[276]

In March 1861, inLincoln\'s first inaugural address, he explored the nature of democracy. He denounced secession as anarchy, and explained that majority rule had to be balanced by constitutional restraints in the American system. He said \"A majority held in restraint by constitutional checks and limitations, and always changing easily with deliberate changes of popular opinions and sentiments, is the only true sovereign of a free people.\"[277]

Other enactments

Lincoln adhered to the Whig theory of the presidency, which gave Congress primary responsibility for writing the laws while the Executive enforced them. Lincoln vetoed only four bills passed by Congress; the only important one was the Wade-Davis Bill with its harsh program of Reconstruction.[278]He signed theHomestead Actin 1862, making millions of acres of government-held land in the West available for purchase at very low cost. TheMorrill Land-Grant Colleges Act, also signed in 1862, provided government grants for agricultural colleges in each state. ThePacific Railway Actsof 1862 and 1864 granted federal support for the construction of the United States\'First Transcontinental Railroad, which was completed in 1869.[279]The passage of the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railway Acts was made possible by the absence of Southern congressmen and senators who had opposed the measures in the 1850s.[280]

The Lincoln Lincoln1861–1865Vice PresidentHannibal Hamlin1861–1865Andrew Johnson1865Secretary of StateWilliam H. Seward1861–1865Secretary of TreasurySalmon P. Chase1861–1864William P. Fessenden1864–1865Hugh McCulloch1865Secretary of WarSimon Cameron1861–1862Edwin M. Stanton1862–1865Attorney GeneralEdward Bates1861–1864James Speed1864–1865Postmaster GeneralMontgomery Blair1861–1864William Dennison Jr.1864–1865Secretary of the NavyGideon Welles1861–1865Secretary of the InteriorCaleb blood Smith1861–1862John Palmer Usher1863–1865

Other important legislation involved two measures to raise revenues for the Federal government: tariffs (a policy with long precedent), and a new Federal income tax. In 1861, Lincoln signed the second and thirdMorrill Tariff, the first having become law under James Buchanan. Also in 1861, Lincoln signed theRevenue Act of 1861, creating the first U.S. income tax.[282]This created a flat tax of 3 percent on incomes above $800 ($21,100 in current dollar terms), which was later changed by theRevenue Act of 1862to a progressive rate structure.[283]

Lincoln also presided over the expansion of the federal government\'s economic influence in several other areas. The creation of the system of national banks by theNational Banking Actprovided a strong financial network in the country. It also established a national currency. In 1862, Congress created, with Lincoln\'s approval, theDepartment of Agriculture.[284]In 1862, Lincoln sent a senior general, John Pope, to put down the \"Sioux Uprising\" in Minnesota. Presented with 303 execution warrants for convictedSantee Dakotawho were accused of killing innocent farmers, Lincoln conducted his own personal review of each of these warrants, eventually approving 39 for execution (one was later reprieved).[285]President Lincoln had planned to reform federal Indian policy.[286]

In the wake of Grant\'s casualties in his campaign against Lee, Lincoln had considered yet another executive call for a military draft, but it was never issued. In response to rumors of one, however, the editors of theNew York Worldand theJournal of Commercepublished a false draft proclamation which created an opportunity for the editors and others employed at the publications to corner the gold market. Lincoln\'s reaction was to send the strongest of messages to the media about such behavior; he ordered the military to seize the two papers. The seizure lasted for two days.[287]

Lincoln is largely responsible for the institution of theThanksgiving holidayin the United States.[288]Before Lincoln\'s presidency, Thanksgiving, while a regional holiday in New England since the 17th century, had been proclaimed by the federal government only sporadically and on irregular dates. The last such proclamation had been duringJames Madison\'s presidency 50 years before. In 1863, Lincoln declared the final Thursday in November of that year to be a day of Thanksgiving.[288]In June 1864, Lincoln approved the Yosemite Grant enacted by Congress, which provided unprecedented federal protection for the area now known asYosemite National Park.[289]

Memory and memorialsMain articles:Memorials to Abraham LincolnandAbraham Lincoln cultural depictionsLincoln Memorialin Washington, D.C.

Lincoln\'s portrait appears on two denominations ofUnited States currency, thepennyand the$5 bill. His likeness also appears on manypostage stampsand he has been memorialized in many town, city, and county names,[345]including thecapitalof Nebraska.[346]

The most famous and most visited memorials are the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C.; Lincoln\'s sculpture onMount Rushmore;[347]Ford\'s TheatreandPetersen House(where he died) in Washington and theAbraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum, located in Springfield, Illinois, not far fromLincoln\'s homeandhis tomb.[348][349]

There was also theGreat Moments with Mr. Lincolnexhibit inDisneyland, and the Hall of Presidents atWalt Disney World, which had to do withWalt Disneyadmiring Lincoln ever since he was a little boy.

Barry Schwartz, a sociologist who has examined America\'s cultural memory, argues that in the 1930s and 1940s, the memory of Abraham Lincoln was practically sacred and provided the nation with \"a moral symbol inspiring and guiding American life\". During the Great Depression, he argues, Lincoln served \"as a means for seeing the world\'s disappointments, for making its sufferings not so much explicable as meaningful\". Franklin D. Roosevelt, preparing America for war, used the words of the Civil War president to clarify the threat posed by Germany and Japan. Americans asked, \"What would Lincoln do?\"[350]However, Schwartz also finds that since World War II, Lincoln\'s symbolic power has lost relevance, and this \"fading hero is symptomatic of fading confidence in national greatness\". He suggested that postmodernism and multiculturalism have diluted greatness as a concept.[351]

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