1925 Polish MINIATURE Fine SIDDUR Jewish PRZEMYSL Hebrew HOLOCAUST Judaica BOOK


1925 Polish MINIATURE Fine SIDDUR Jewish PRZEMYSL Hebrew HOLOCAUST Judaica BOOK

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1925 Polish MINIATURE Fine SIDDUR Jewish PRZEMYSL Hebrew HOLOCAUST Judaica BOOK:
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DESCRIPTION :Up for sale is a MINIATURE ( 2.5\" x 3.5\" )original Judaica SIDDUR .Published 1925 ( Dated ) in PRZEMYSL - POLAND (German:Premissel,Ukrainian:Peremyshl, Перемишль less often Перемишель) . Printed in PRZEMYSL POLAND by SIMCHE FREUND. .Written in HEBREW. The Ashkenazi SIDDUR is named MARGALIT TOVAH. PRZEMYSL is best known for its very large JEWISH COMMUNITY which was destructed by the Nazis during the HOLOCAUST - WW2 and the PRZEMYSL GHETTO where huge massacres and atrocities were committed by the NAZIS. This TINY SIDDUR is a RARE REMNANT of that JEWRY.Original illustratedand decorated and embossed HC , Decorated in GOLD. . Original illustrated cloth spin, Decorated in gold . 3.5\" x 2.5\". 402 pp .Very good condition . Perfectly clean. Tightly bound. Practicaly unused. The original excelent HC suffers from a few tiny imperfections.( Please look at scan for actual AS IS images ) .Will be sent protected inside a protective rigid envelope .

AUTHENTICITY : Thisis anORIGINAL1925 HEBREW Polish SIDDUR , NOT a reproduction , Immitation or a reprint , Itholds alife long GUARANTEE for its AUTHENTICITY and ORIGINALITY.

PAYMENTS : Payment method accepted : Paypal.SHIPPMENT : SHIPP worldwide via registered airmailis $17 .Will be sent protected inside a protective rigid envelope . Handling within 3-5 days after payment. Estimated duration 14 days.

MORE DETAILS Перемишль less often Перемишель) is a city in south-EasternPolandwith 66,756 inhabitants, as of June 2009.[1]In 1999, it became part of theSubcarpathian Voivodeship; it was previously the capital ofPrzemyśl Voivodeship.Przemyśl owes its long and rich history to the advantages of its geographic location. The city lies in an area connecting mountains and lowlands known as the Przemyśl Gate, with open lines of transportation, and fertile soil. It also lies on the navigableSan River. Important trade routes that connectCentral Europefrom Przemyśl ensure the city\'s importance.Contents[hide]1 Names2 History2.1 Within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth2.2 As part of Austrian Poland2.3 Przemyśl Fortress2.4 After World War I2.5 Second World War2.6 After the war3 Climate4 Main sights5 Education6 Sport7 Politics7.1 Krosno/Przemyśl constituency8 Twin towns9 Notable people10 See also11 References12 External linksNames[edit]Different names in various languages have identified the city throughout its history. Selected languages andYiddish:פּשעמישל‎ (Pshemishl).History[edit]Royal Casimir castlePrzemyśl, the second-oldest city in southern Poland (afterKraków), appears to date from as early as the 8th century. The region subsequently became part of the 9th-centuryGreat Moravianstate. Archeological remains testify to the presence of a monastic settlement as early as the 9th century. Upon the invasion of theHungarian tribesinto the heart of the Great Moravian Empire around 899, theLendiansof the area declared allegiance to the Hungarian authorities[citation needed]. The Przemyśl region then became a site of contention between Poland,Kievan RusandHungarybeginning in at least the 9th century. The area was mentioned for the first time in 981 byNestor, whenVladimir Iof Kievan Rus took it over on the way into Poland.[2][3]In 1018 Przemyśl returned to Poland, and in 1031 it was retaken by Rus. The palatium complex was built during the rule ofBolesław I Chrobry.[4]Between the 11th and 12th century the city was a capital of thePrincipality of Peremyshl, one of the principalities that made up theKievan Rus\'state. Sometime before 1218 anEastern Orthodoxeparchywas founded in the city.[5]Przemyśl later became part of theKingdom of Galicia–Volhynia.Within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth[edit]Early 17th century graphics with Latin writingPremislia celebris Rvssiae civitasIn 1340 Przemyśl was taken byCasimir III of Polandand became part of the Polish kingdom as result of theGalicia–Volhynia Wars. Around this time the first Roman Catholic diocese was founded in the city,[5]and Przemyśl was granted city rights based onMagdeburg rights, confirmed in 1389 by kingWładysław II Jagiełło.The city prospered as an important trade centre during theRenaissanceperiod. Like the city\'s population consisted of a great number of nationalities, includingPoles,Ruthenians, Jews, Germans,CzechsandArmenians. The long period of prosperity enabled the construction of such handsome public buildings as theOld Synagogueof 1559. A Jesuit college was founded in the city in 1617.[5]The prosperity came to an end in the middle of the 17th century, due to wartime destruction duringThe Delugeand the general decline of thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealthat this time. The city decline lasted for over a hundred years, and only at the end of the 18th century did it recover its former levels of population. In 1754, the Roman Catholic bishop founded Przemyśl\'s first public library, which was only the second public library in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (Warsaw\'sZałuski Librarywas founded 7 years earlier). Przemyśl\'s importance at that time was such that when Austriaannexed Eastern Galicia in 1772the Austrians considered making Przemyśl their provincial capital, before deciding on Lwów.[5]In the mid-eighteenth century, people of Jewish faith constituted 55.6% (1692) of the population, Roman Catholics 39.5% (1202), and Greek Catholics 4.8% (147).[6]As part of Austrian Poland[edit]Austrian KK Postal card in Polish version sent in 1881In 1772, as a consequence of theFirst Partition of Poland, Przemyśl became part of theAustrian empire, in what the Austrians called theKingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. According to the Austrian census of 1830, the city was home to 7,538 people of whom 1,508 (20%) were members of theGreek Catholic Church, a significantly larger number of Ruthenians than in most Galician cities.[5]In 1804 a Ruthenian library was established in Przemyśl. By 1822 its collection had over 33,000 books and its importance for Ruthenians was comparable to that held by theOssolineumlibrary in Lviv for Poles. Przemyśl also became the center of the revival of Byzantine choral music in theGreek Catholic Church. Until eclipsed by Lviv in the 1830s, Przemyśl was the most important city in the Ruthenian cultural awakening in the nineteenth century.[5]In 1861 railways were built to connect Przemyśl with Kraków to the west and Lviv (Lemberg) to the east. In the middle of the 19th century, due to the growing conflict betweenAustriaand Russia over theBalkans, Austria grew more mindful of Przemyśl\'s strategic location near the border with theRussian Empire. During theCrimean War, when tensions mounted between Russia andAustria, a series of massive fortresses, 15km (9mi) in circumference, were built around the city by the Austrians.The census of 1910 showed that the city had 54,078 residents. Roman Catholics were the most numerous – 25,306 (46,8%), followed by Jews – 16,062 (29,7%) and Greek Catholics – 12,018 (22,2%).[7]Przemyśl Fortress[edit]See also:Przemyśl FortressFort 15 \"Borek\", 1896–1900With technological progress inartilleryduring the second half of the 19th century, the old fortifications rapidly became obsolete. The longer range ofrifledartillery necessitated the redesign of fortresses so that they would be larger and able to resist the newly available guns. To achieve this, between the years 1888 and 1914 Przemyśl was turned into a first classfortress, the third largest in Europe out of about 200 that were built in this period. Around the city, in a circle of circumference 45km (28mi), 44 forts of various sizes were built. The older fortifications were modernised to provide the fortress with an internal defence ring. The fortress was designed to accommodate 85,000 soldiers and 956cannonsof all sorts, although eventually 120,000 soldiers were garrisoned there.[8]German illustration of the secondSiege of Przemyśl, from the 13 January 1915Illustrated War News.In August 1914, at the start of theFirst World War, Russian forces defeatedAustro-Hungarianforces in the opening engagements and advanced rapidly intoGalicia. The Przemyśl fortress fulfilled its mission very effectively, helping to stop a 300,000 strong Russian army advancing upon theCarpathianPasses and Kraków, theLesser Polandregional capital. The firstsiegewas lifted by a temporary Austro-Hungarian advance. However, the Russian army resumed its advance and initiated asecond siege of the fortress of Przemyślin October 1914. This time relief attempts were unsuccessful. Due to lack of food and exhaustion of its defenders, the fortress surrendered on 22 March 1915. The Russians captured 126,000 prisoners and 700 big guns. Before surrender, the complete destruction of all fortifications was carried out. The Russians did not linger in Przemyśl. A renewed offensive by theCentral Powersrecaptured the destroyed fortress on 3 June 1915. During the fighting around Przemyśl, both sides lost up to 115,000 killed, wounded, and missing.[8]After World War I[edit]Przemyśl Train StationInterior of the stationAt the end of World War I, Przemyśl became disputed between renascent Poland and theWest Ukrainian People\'s Republic. On 1 November 1918 a local provisional government was formed with representatives of Polish, Jewish, and Ruthenian inhabitants of the area. However, on 3 November, Ukrainian military unit overthrew the government, arrested its leader, and captured the Eastern part of the city. The Ukrainian army was checked by a small Polish self-defence unit formed of World War I veterans. Also numerous young Polish volunteers from Przemyśl\'s high schools, later to be known as Przemyśl Orlęta,The Eaglets of Przemyśl(in a similar manner to more famousLwów Eaglets), joined the host. The battlefront divided the city along the river San, with the western borough of Zasanie held in Polish hands and the Old Town controlled by the Ukrainians. Neither Poles nor Ukrainians could effectively cross the San, so both opposing parties decided to wait for a relief force from the outside. That race was won by the Polish relievers: the volunteer expeditionary unit formed in Kraków arrived in Przemyśl on 10 November. When the subsequent Polish ultimatum to the Ukrainians remained unanswered, on 11–12 November the Polish forces crossed the San and forced out the outnumbered Ukrainians from the city in what became known as the1918 Battle of Przemyśl.After the end of thePolish–Ukrainian Warand thePolish–Bolshevik Warthat followed, the city became a part of theSecond Polish Republic. Although the capital of thevoivodshipwas inLwów(see:Lwów Voivodeship), Przemyśl recovered its nodal position as a seat of local church administration, as well as the garrison of the 10thMilitary Districtof thePolish Army- a staff unit charged with organising the defence of roughly 10% of the territory of prewar Poland. As of 1931 Przemyśl had a population of 62,272 and was the biggest city in southern Poland located between Kraków and Lwów.Second World War[edit]See also:Battle of Przemyśl (1939)After theinvasion of PolandbyNazi Germanyand theSoviet Union, the border between the two invaders ran through the middle of the city along theSan riveruntil June 1941. During theSoviet occupationPrzemyśl was incorporated to theUkrainian SSRin the atmosphere ofNKVD terror.[9]It became part of the newly establishedDrohobych Oblast.[10]In 1940 the city became anadministrative centerof Peremyshl Uyezd with the PeremyshlFortified Districtestablished along theNazi-Soviet frontierbefore theGerman attack against the USSRin 1941.[11]The town\'s population increased due to a large influx of Jewish refugees from theGeneral Governmentwho sought to cross the border to Romania.[12]It is estimated that by mid-1941 the Jewish population of the city had grown to roughly 16,500. In theOperation Barbarossaof 1941, the Eastern (Soviet) part of the city was also occupied by Germany. On 20 June 1942 the first group of 1,000 Jews was transported from the Przemyśl area to theJanowska concentration camp, and on 15 July 1942 aNazi ghettowas established for all Jewish inhabitants of Przemyśl and its vicinity – some 22,000 people altogether. Local Jews were given 24 hours to enter the Ghetto. Jewish communal buildings, including theTempel Synagogueand theOld Synagoguewere destroyed; theNew Synagogue,Zasanie Synagogue, and all commercial and residential real estate belonging to Jews were expropriated.[13]Further information:Jewish ghettos in German-occupied PolandPopulation of Przemyśl, 1931Roman Catholics 39 430 (63,3%)Jews 18 376 (29,5%)Greek Catholics 4 391 (7,0%)Other denominations 85 (0,2%)Total 62 272Source: 1931 Polish censusView of the Old Town in Przemyśl, 2014The ghetto in Przemyśl was sealed off from the outside on 14 July 1942. By that time, there may have been as many as 24,000 Jews in the ghetto. On 27 July theGestaponotifiedJudenratabout the forced resettlement program and posted notices that an\"Aktion\"(roundup for deportation to camps) was to be implemented involving almost all occupants. Exceptions were made for some essential, and Gestapo workers, who would have their papers stamped accordingly. On the same day, MajorMax Liedtke, military commander of Przemyśl, ordered his troops to seize the bridge across the San river that connected the divided city, and halt the evacuation. The Gestapo were forced to give him permission to retain the workers performing service for theWehrmacht(up to 100 Jews with families). For the actions undertaken by Liedtke and his adjutantAlbert Battelin Przemyśl,Yad Vashemlater named them \"Righteous Among the Nations\".[14]The process of extermination of the Jews resumed thereafter. Until September 1943 almost all Jews were sent to theAuschwitzorBelzecextermination camps. The local branches of thePolish undergroundand theŻegotamanaged to save 415 Jews. According to a postwar investigation in German archives, 568 Poles were executed by the Germans for sheltering Jews in the area of Przemyśl, including Michał Kruk, hanged along with several others on 6 September 1943 in a public execution. Among the manyPolish rescuersthere, were theBanasiewicz, Kurpiel, Kuszek, Lewandowski, andPodgórskifamilies.[15][16]TheRed Armyretook the town from German forces on 27 July 1944. On 16 August 1945, a border agreement between the government of the Soviet Union and the PolishProvisional Government of National Unity, installed by the Soviets, was signed in Moscow. According to the so-calledCurzon Line, the postwar Eastern border of Poland has been established several kilometres to the east of Przemyśl.After the war[edit]In the postwar territorial settlement, the new border between Poland and the Soviet Union placed Przemyśl just within thePolish People\'s Republic. The border now ran only a few kilometers to the east of the city, cutting it off from much of its economic hinterland. Due to the murder of Jews in theNaziHolocaustand the postwar expulsion of Ukrainians (in 1947\'sOperation Vistulaorakcja Wisla), the city\'s population fell to 24,000, almost entirely Polish. However, the city welcomed thousands of Polish migrants from Eastern Galicia. Their numbers restored the population to its prewar level.As a result of all these events, the growth of the city in the years after 1945 was stunted. In the 1990s, economic reforms inUkraineafter the fall of the Soviet Union allowed the border to be opened, improving the city\'s opportunities for trade.PrzemyślContentsHideSuggested ReadingAuthorTranslation(Ukr., Peremyshl; Yid., Pshemishel), city in southEasternPoland. It is presumed that at the beginning of the eleventh century a Jewish trading post existed in Przemyśl. Larger groups of Jews settled in the town in the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries, and by the end of the fourteenth century a Jewish community had been constituted. Atthe beginning of the fifteenth century,this community numbered as many as 100 persons. A document from 1459 mentions a “Jewish” street in Przemyśl. Jews settled primarily in the northEastern part of the city, establishing a distinct quarter. They were involved in both local and long-distancetrade, and also made their living as moneylenders and artisans, the latter maintaining their ownguilds.Synagogue built in 1902, Przemyśl, Poland, 2004. Photograph by Piotr Piluk. (© Piotr Piluk)In 1559, King Sigismund Augustus granted Jews of Przemyśl a privilege or charter, assuring them freedom of trade. Ten years later, about 270 Jews resided there, making up 8 percent of the total population; in 1629 the numbers had risen to 960, or 16 percent, and in 1785 there were 1,750, or 27 percent. Przemyśl’s Jewish community was one of Poland’s largest, and its rabbi also acted as spiritualleader for the entire district. In the sixteenth century, Przemyśl’s Jews built a wooden synagogue and, in 1594, constructed a more permanent, Renaissance-style synagogue. In the seventeenth century, a Jewish cemetery was established in the Podgórze suburb. Municipal authorities charged the Jewish community with the task of defending the portion of the city walls adjacent to the Jewish quarter. From the mid-sixteenth to the mid-eighteenth century, the community suffered through nine anti-Jewish riots. Also during this period were five accusations of ritual murder, and in 1630 Moshko Shmukler was executed for alleged Host desecration.After the first partition of Poland in 1772, Przemyśl fell under Austrian rule, a situation that temporarily worsened the legal status of the city’s Jews. Przemyśl’s Jewish population nonetheless continued to grow, reaching 5,692, or 38.2 percent of the total, in 1870, and 16,062, or 29.7 percent, in 1910. The rapid rise in the city’s Jewish population led to the establishment of a new cemetery near Słowacki Street in 1822 and the construction of several new synagogues. Przemyśl’s most notable rabbis of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries were Shemu’el Heller, Yitsḥak Yehudah Schmelkes, and Gedalyah Schmelkes. At the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century, much of the trading and artisanal activity of Przemyśl’s Jews centered on supplying provisions for the city’s military base.Proponents of theHaskalahwere active in the city; at the same time,Hasidismalso gained adherents in the nineteenth century. In the late nineteenth century, Jews in Przemyśl began to formZionistorganizations. From 1905, a Jewish SocialDemocratic Party, affiliated with the Polish Socialist Party (PPS) and led by Herman Lieberman, gained substantial support as well. Jews were often members of the city council in Przemyśl; a notable example was the communal leader Mosheh Sheinbach.During World War I, occupying Russian forces deported all Jews from Przemyśl; they returned only after the Russians were driven out of the city. In 1921, Przemyśl was home to 18,360 Jews, who constituted 38.8 percent of the city’s total population. The interwar period saw a flourishing of Jewish organizations and institutions, with Zionists gaining influence mainly at the expense of the OrthodoxAgudas Yisroelparty, which lost its leading role in the community’s institutions to the former group in 1936. TheBund, too, became an important politicalforce in the 1930s. Of the 48 seats inPrzemyśl’s city council, Jews won 18 in1928, and the Zionist doctor Henryk Reichman became deputy mayor. Rising antisemitism, meanwhile, expressed itself mainly in boycotts of Jewish shops and artisans.Przemyśl was the birthplace of the historian and philologistMatthias Mieses(1885–1942), who resided there during the interwar period. His brother,Józef Mieses(1882–1942), became the chief rabbi of the Polish army; likewise native to the city were the rabbi and historianMojżesz Schorrand the philologist Mojżesz Altbauer, both of whom graduated from the city’s Polish secondary school.Jews selling off their household goods, Przemyśl ghetto, Poland, 1942. (YIVO)From September 1939 to June 1941, Soviet forces occupied the city, with the exception of the Zasanie neighborhood, which was given to the Germans. Soviet authorities deported about 7,000 Jews toRussia, and after taking over the entire city, the Germans established a ghetto on 16 July 1942. In addition to Jews native to Przemyśl, the Germans moved Jews from surrounding towns into the city’s ghetto; in all, the ghetto held more than 22,000 persons. At the end of July and the beginning of August 1942, more than 10,000 Jews were deported to Bełżec, while another several hundred were shot in a forest in Grochowce. In November 1942, the Germans sent another group of 4,000 Jews to Bełżec. Przemyśl’s ghetto was then reduced in size and divided into two sections—“A” for those who could work and “B” for those who could not. The Germans liquidated the latter section in early September 1943, sending most of its residents to their deaths at Auschwitz. The liquidation of section A began in November 1943 and ended in February 1944; Jews residing there were sent tolabor campsin Szebnie, Stalowa Wola, and Płaszów.After the city was liberated in 1944, a Jewish committee was founded. In 1947, a Jewish workers’ cooperative known as Jedność (Unity) employed 25 people. In 1966, Przemyśl still had a functioning Jewish Social-Cultural Society. By the beginning of the twenty-first century, however, only a handful of Jews remained in Przemyśl.PrzemyslPre-War panorama of Przemysl & ZasaniePrzemysl is a city in Poland, situated on the San River, in the Lvov district, Eastern Galicia and before the Second World War approximately 24,000 Jews lived in Przemysl.The Germans bombed Przemysl on 7 September 1939 and the following day the bombing continued setting fire to the shopping centre Pasaz Gansa.Many of Przemysl inhabitants fled the city, to escape the bombings, and the Germans entered the city for the first time on 15 September 1939, approximately 20, 000 Jews lived in Przemysl, including refugees from western Poland.The Germans immediately began to humiliate the Jewish inhabitants and started to arrest members of the Jewish intelligentsia, physicians, lawyers, industrialists and Jewish political activists. Forty-three leading Jewish citizens were arrested, taken for forced labour, savagely beaten and then shot. Among the forty-three was Asscher Gitter, whose son had emigrated to the United States in 1938, hoping that one day his father would join him.Jews forced out of Przemysl across the San RiverJews were taken from their dwellings by members of theSicherheitspolizeior were rounded up on the streets and taken to nearby woods surrounding Przemysl where they were shot and buried in communal graves.The first mass executions of approximately 600 Jews took place between 16 and 19 September 1939, at a number of places in the cities outskirts, these included Lipowica, Pralkowce also at Przekopana near the Wiar River and near the Jewish cemetery at Slowackiego Street. On 23 September 1939 notified the inhabitants of Przemysl that the San River was the demarcation line between the German and Soviet areas. On 28 September 1939 the Soviets took possession of the city. Shortly before the withdrawal the Germans burnt down the Old Synagogue, the Klois, the Hassidic prayer house, the Tempel Synagogue on Jagiellonska Street and parts of the Jewish quarter. The Old Synagogue destroyedAs in other places that fell into Soviet hands in 1939, the lives of Jews changed greatly. Jewish cultural and political activity, especially religious and Zionist the Soviets ended.Private industries and businesses were turned into co-operatives and in April and May 1940 about 7,000 Jews were deported to the Soviet interior.On 26 September, Jewish inhabitants of Zasanie and villages on the German side of the San River were ordered to move to the Russian occupied part of Przemysl. Since the bridge over the San had been bombed by the Germans, the Jews could only reach the Eastern part of thecity only via the railway bridge. Later this crossing was prohibited for all civilians especially Jews.On the German side whilst most of the Jews had been moved to the Soviet side, only a handful were left, 66 in all mostly women, elderly and sick were later housed in two buildings on 11/13 Dolinskiego Street.German side of the demarcation lineAround the turn of the year in 1940 the Frontier Police Authority(Grenzpolizeikommissariat) was set up, and their job was to ensure that movement across the border area was restricted.On 27 June 1940 the German part of Przemysl was re-named Deutsch- Przemysl and for two years became a collection point for ethnic Germans returning “home.”In January 1940 Heinrich Himmler and Hanns Johst, a writer, were both at the bridge over the San River to greet ethnic Germans, and Johst recalled “all the returnees bow deeply and faithfully to this greeting, which is for them a promise and the host of infinite happiness.”Yiddish map of the Ghetto in PrzemyslDeutsche- Przemysl included the areas Zasanie, Ostrow, Kunkowce, Buszkowce, Buszkowiczki, Zurawica, Walawa, Przekopana, Polnocna, and parts of Ujkowice and Bolestraszyce.In the spring of 1940 aJudenratwas established in Zasanie – this was probably the only Judenrat in occupied Poland headed by a woman, Anna Feingold.Anna Feingold exact fate is unknown, but in all probability she was probably shot by the Germans in Lipowice, prior to the first mass deportations. With Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union the Germans reoccupied Przemysl on 28 June 1941 some 17,000 Jews were living there. The Nazis immediately began rounding up Jews for forced labour. On their own initiative the Jews established a committee to represent themselves, headed by Dr. Ignatz Duldig.Within a few days the Gestapo arrived and enforced anti-Jewish measures, such as the wearing of the Jewish badge, the registration of all Jews in the labour office, and the establishment of a Jewish Council(Judenrat) under Dr Duldig.Gestapo HQ in PrzemyslDuring the following year Jews were forced to hand over their valuables and various household goods. Those who did not comply with the Nazi decrees were beaten and imprisoned.In August 1941, Galicia was incorporated into the General Government and Przemysl was administratively reunited under its former name and with the surrounding municipalities it now formed theKreishauptmannschaftPrzemysl, department of theSicherheitspolizei,and a Criminal Investigation Department were all under the command ofSS- UntersturmfuhrerWeichelt. The premises of these departments were separated from each other, but were under the sole command of theBefehlshaber der Sicherheitspolizeiand the SD Dr Schongarth in Krakow.Furthermore Przemysl became headquarters of theGendarmarieunderHauptmannHassler as well as a regular police which utilised Polish and Ukrainian volunteers and one company of Police Battalion 307.Jews gathered in PrzemyslAfter the occupation the GPK Przemysl was housed in the Gestapo Headquarters, a multi-storied private house on Ulica Krasinskiego.In charge of the GPK Przemysl until May 1941 wasKriminal-KommissarFreidrich Preuss, who was succeeded bySS-UntersturmfuhrerAdolf Benthin, who was replaced bySS-SturmscharfuhrerRudolf Heinrich Benewitz and finally bySS- HauptsturmfuhrerWeichelt in early 1944 until the unit was dissolved in July 1944.The GPK was responsible for the surveliance of the Jews in Przemysl andSturmscharfuhrerRichard Timme was responsible for Jewish matters, although economic administration was still under the authority of theKreishauptmannschaft.The conditions for the Jews deteriorated sharply in the summer months of July and August 1941 as the Nazi grip tightened, in late autumn 1941 the quarter of Garbarze was proclaimed as the Jewish residential area. It was bordered East, North and West by the bend of the San River and in the South by the Lvov – Krakow railway route.The establishment of the Jewish Quarter lasted until the summer of 1942, with Jews being allowed to walk freely through the streets, only the crossing to Zasanie via the provisional bridge was prohibited for Jews.German police standing guard in PrzemyslOn 26 December 1941Schutzpolizeialong withVolksdeutscheand Polish policemen entered Jewish homes and seized furs and other clothing, destined for German troops fighting on the Russian front.Schutzpolizeiofficers started to remove furs and fur collars from the coats of all Jewish men and women they met in the streets. They also removed winter boots, particularly from women and made them walk with bare-feet in the cold.From the spring of 1942 there were numerous executions of Jews by shooting at the Jewish cemetery at Slowackiego Street. These shootings were carried out by Gestapo officials responsible for Jewish affairs and by members of the Przemysl GPK.By the summer of 1942 some 5,000 Jews from neighbouring villages, such as Bircza, Krzywcza, Nizankowice and Dynow had been brought to Przemysl, at the same time rumours of Nazi savagery began to reach the city, such as the murder of 45 women who had been imprisoned in nearby Zasanie.The violence soon reached Przemysl during June 1942, on the 3 June the Germans murdered all Jewish residents of the Zasanie Ghetto at Dolinskiego Street were taken by trucks to the former Austrian Fort Vlll Letownia in the Kunkowce suburb. On the 18 June 1942 1,000 Jewish men from the city were sent to the Janowska labour camp in Lvov. On the day of the deportation, the Gestapo guards shot many of the deportee’s relatives, as they parted from one another. They also shot men who tried to evade the deportation. Jews living under German occupation in PrzemyslThe establishment of a sealed ghetto was announced on 14 July and all Jews had to be within its boundaries by the following day, between 22,000 -24,000 Jews lived in the ghetto.Only the members of the Jewish council and their families were allowed to remain in their homes outside the residential area until the deportations commenced.On 20 July 1942 the German authorities demanded 1,300,000 zloty stating that payment of this sum would guarantee peace and quiet, the same day the resettlement action was planned for the 27 July 1942. This took place in the Gestapo headquarters - the chief participants were theKreishauptmann, the municipal administrator, representatives of the Security Police, Order Police and the head of the Przemysl Labour Office. On 23 July 1942 theJudenratwas told that in four days some Jews would be taken away for forced labour and others would be given work permits.In the end the Gestapo gave Duldig only 5,000 work permits, complete with a Gestapo stamp. On 24 July theJudenratcollected all the work cards and handed them over to the Gestapo, and the cards with the Gestapo stamp were returned two days later.Thus followed three separate“Aktions” carried out on 27 July 1942, 31 July 1942 and 3 August 1942. On the first day the ghetto was surrounded bySchutzpolizeiand Gestapo units, under the commandSS- HauptsturmfuhrerMartin Fellenz, from theSSPFKrakow office.The bridge over the river SanOn the first day of the“aktion” 6,500 Jews were deported to the death camp at Belzec, and Dr Ignatz Duldig and his deputy were shot, the elderly, handicapped, ill and some children – approximately 2,500 people were taken in trucks to the Grochowce forest and other places on the outskirts of the city. They were shot and buried in a number of mass graves.On the second day 3,000 Jews were deported to Belzec and on the 3 August 1942 a further 3,000 were sent to the same place. At the end of the “Aktion” the Jews were forced to turn over a sum of money to the Gestapo, ostensibly to defray the deportation transportation costs. By the end of August, the Gestapo had murdered one hundred more Jews in Przemysl.During the first day of the Aktion an extraordinary rescue act took place. The adjutant to Major Max Liedtke the Military Governor of the town Lieutenant a Dr. Alfred Battel, requested from the Gestapo, that the Jews who worked for the German Army, whether they had work permits or not, should be spared.Ganzenmueller concerning transports to BelzecWhen his request was not granted German Army forces took control of the bridges that connected the two parts of the city and threatened that they would not let any transports leave.After calling their commander in Krakow Julian Scherner the Gestapo acceded to his request, for this Battel and Liedtke were both named a Righteous among the Nations by Yad Vashem.During these mass deportations Josef Buzhminski witnessed the following scene from his hiding place near the ghetto fence, bordering “Aryan” Przemysl. It was from this hiding place that Buzhminski saw an SS man by the name of Kidash catch a Jewish woman who was holding a baby in her arms. The baby was about eighteen months old. “She held the baby in her arms,” Buzhminski recalled, “and began asking for mercy, that she be shot first, leaving the baby alive. From behind the fence there were Poles who raised their hands ready to catch the baby,”The woman was about to hand the baby over to the Poles, when Kidash “took the baby from her arms and shot her twice,” and then took the baby into his hands and tore him as one would tear a rag.”Towards the middle of November 1942 the Jews started to fear that another “Aktion”was brewing and began to build bunkers.Przemysl SoldatenheimWhen the second“Aktion” came on 18 November 1942 more than 8,000 Jews without work permits were slated for deportation and about 1,500 were to be exempted. Only 3,500 however, showed up at the concentration point – the rest of the Jews were hiding in bunkers.During the day some 500 were found and added to the transport bound for Belzec death camp.After the second “Aktion” the ghetto was divided into two sections – Section A with 800 and later about 1,300 Jews, was preserved primarily for workers. Section B was for the remaining Jews, primarily non-workers.The Synagogue in ZasanieIn February 1943,SS-UnterscharfuhrerJoseph Schwammberger took over Section A, which was officially declared a labour camp. Schwammberger survived the war and fled to Argentina. In 1990 he was extradited to Germany tried and convicted of war crimes and sentenced to life imprisonment. Schwammberger died in Stuttgart prison hospital on 4 December 2004.There was no massive armed resistance in Przemysl, in mid-April 1943 twelve young men escaped from the ghetto and tried to join the partisans. They were intercepted by Ukrainians not far from the city and all but one was murdered.The survivor known only by his surname Green was hanged in public, shortly thereafter, along with Meir Krebs, who had stabbed a Gestapo man, Karl Friedrich Reisner, on 10 May 1943.Former Zasanie Synagogue(circa 2004)The liquidation of Section B began on 2 -3 September 1943 – during the “Aktion” 3,500 Jews, most of whom were hiding in bunkers, were rounded up and sent to Auschwitz. An additional 600 Jews were selected from the labour camp and sent to Szebnie camp from there they were sent to Auschwitz several weeks later.One week after the start of the final “Aktion” the commander of the GPK Rudolph Bennewitz stated that all Jews who reported for resettlement voluntarily would go to a work camp, and 1,580 Jews gave themselves up.On 11 September 1943, after they had undressed and surrendered their valuables they were shot in the yard of theJudenratbuilding in Kopernika Street, in groups of fifty. Their corpses were burned where they fell during the days following the executions. This “aktion” known as the “Turnhallen – Aktion”(Gymnasium Action) was carried out in the city centre, only 200 meters from Przemysl railway station.Photo of the German Military Cemetery in PrzemyslOn 28 October 1943 100 more Jews were brought to Szebnie from the Przemysl work camp- they too subsequently were deported to Auschwitz. At the end of February 1944 the final 150 inmates were sent to Stalowa Wola and from there to Auschwitz.From October 1943 to April 1944 the Nazis continued to search for Jews in hiding, finding and killing about 1,000. These killings were carried out by the Gestapo, SS and the camp commander Schwammberger.The camp was destroyed at the end of February 1944 which should have meant that Przemysl was “Judenfrei.” However, this was not the case around 120 Jews were in hiding in secret “bunkers” within Przemysl and the surrounding area.\"Fritz Jirmann\" on Military HeadstoneBetween March to May 1944 three or four secret “bunkers” housing 40 -50 Jews were killed, the last hiding place was discovered in May 1944 in Tarnawce near Przemysl where 27 Jews were shot. The Kurpiel family who helped the Jews in hiding were executed in Lipowica. On 23 July 1944 Przemysl was bombed by Russian airplanes and on 27 July 1944 the Russians captured the city, which was the exact anniversary of the first major deportation to the Belzec death two years earlier. Only 300 Jews of those living in the Przemysl area in June 1941 survived the war.In the German Military cemetery at Przemysl are buried the remains of Erwin Fichtner and Fritz Jirmann, who were both members of the Belzec death camp guard squad. Fichtner was killed on the 29 March 1943 near Tarnawatka by partisans, and Jirmann was accidentally killed by Heinrich Gley also in March 1943.The Second World WarMany Jews from Przemyśl were recruited into the Polish army in the first week of the Second World War. Others took part in the organization of the urban Civil Defense. On Sept. 8, 1938 the city was bombed and mass flight began in the direction of Hungarian and Romanian borders. Part of the Jewish population, mainly the men, participated in the stream of refugees. Only a few of the refugees really reached Hungary or Romania. Most returned to the city after the occupation by the Soviets at the end of the month.The city was occupied by the Germans on Sept. 14, 1939 and about 600 Jews were executed. They were murdered in three places near the city: Lipowice, Pikulice, and Prakowce.According to the German-Soviet agreement, the main part of the city east of the San River was under Soviet rule, and the west, Zasanie, remained under German rule. Before evacuating the city, the Germans burned some synagogues, including the Temple, the main synagogue, and the mainBet Midrash. The German soldiers also burst into Jewish shops and robbed their goods. Two days before the Soviets entered the Eastern part of the city, the Germans ordered all the Jews who lived in Zasanie to move to the Eastern part of the city. At the beginning the Jews of Zasanie tried to overturn the expulsion order, but finally preferred to move to the Soviet side of the city, although they knew how difficult their refugee status would be. Those expelled were permitted to take only a few possessions, and the majority crossed the San River on foot. Only a few of them succeeded in getting carts or boats in order to move their families and possessions to the east side of the river.The Soviets entered the city on September 28, 1939. The Jewish communal institutions stopped functioning immediately, and the property of the community was nationalized. The Jewish parties stopped functioning; their clubs were closed, and became the property of the authorities. Some of the party activists were imprisoned and expelled to the Soviet Union, among them Hayim Eliash fromHitachadut Poalei Zion, and Fishel Babad of the Revisionists. Some of the Zionist andBundactivists left the city to avoid being imprisoned. The Jewish orphanages, old age homes, and hospital became the property of the municipality, converted into general institutions, and lost their specific Jewish affiliations. All welfare and mutual Jewish assistance institutions also stopped their activities. Synagogues were allowed to exist, and for this reason, except for their religious functions, the synagogues became assistance centers for needy local Jews, and refugees from western Poland who found shelter in the city. In the first weeks a public kitchen was opened which served hot meals to the refugees.The language of instruction in the Jewish high school changed from Polish to Yiddish. The Scientific Jewish Library with its 30,000 books was closed. Books which did not follow the principles of the Soviet government were eliminated, others were dispersed among general city libraries, and part of the collection was lost.About 7,000 Jews were expelled into the Soviet Union between April-June 1940. Mostly they were Jewish refugees who had expressed their desire to return to their families in the German occupation area. Small groups of people who had been in the Polish government service, as well as the formerly well-to-do were given an identity card which excluded them from living in Przemyśl because it was a border city. Actually many were compelled to leave the city and live in settlements in the Western Ukraine.Przemyśl was bombarded before dawn on June 22, 1941 by the German army, the day of the beginning of the German -Soviet war. After the Red Army soldiers recovered from the sudden attack, they succeeded in holding the city another week. Some 100 Jews succeeded in fleeing to the east, but many of them were caught by the German army. Immediately after the entry of Germans to Przemyśl on June 8, 1941, the Jews were ordered to be present at a roll call, and the men who came were taken for forced labor after torture and humiliation.TheJudenratwas established in July 1941, headed by Ignatz Doldig, and among members of the councils were famous public figures as L. Zisswein, D. Hass, S. Tennenbaum, A. Kronenberg, Finkelstein, Wicher, and A. Rechter. Its activities included the Jewish police, headed by Manktrau and his deputy, Goldberg. The employment service took a census of the Jewish population, and was responsible for the supplement of supply of workers for forced labor. Jewish physicians issued exception forms to Jews who for whom harsh labor would endanger their lives. For the most part the Germans did not honor these documents. TheJudenratalso included other departments, such as financial, headed by Doldig, and the Economic, Health, and Housing departments. Removal of Jews from non-Jewish suburbs began in the first weeks of the occupation, centered in the Garbarze area.TheJudenratparceled out official food rations, almost starvation rations, and did not even have a minimal basis of existence. Jews could shop before eight in the morning or after six in the evening at the market. This meant was that there was almost no possibility of buying food. TheJudenratorganized public kitchens that eased the hunger of the poor a little. But the pauperization of Przemyśl\'s Jews became worse after non-stop confiscation of property such as furniture, carpets, silverware, and valuables. Jewish groups were already imprisoned in the summer of 1941 and murdered in the central prison. In November 1941 about 1,000 Jewish youngsters were sent to work camps in all the areas of Eastern Galicia. Imprisonment and executions of Jews accused of cooperating with the Soviets continued during the winter of 1941-42. The community also suffered from other persecutions: forced contributions and confiscation of furs by the German army. Hunger and plagues caused many deaths.In the spring of 1942 theJudenratestablished many institutions and workshops in order to produce places of employment for the Jews of Przemyśl with the hope that it would prevent their expulsion to work camps. In June 1942 the Germans demanded a thousand Jews for the Janowska camp in Lwow, and theJudenratdiscussed possible agreement. At last it decided to implement the order-- with the conjecture that perhaps in this way-- worse harm to the community might be prevented. An internal committee of theJudenratwas constituted to create the list, and it chose names from the Jewish community register of the labor office. There was a rumor in the city that by paying a sum of money there was the possibility of avoiding expulsion to the camp. On June 8, 1942 the men who were to be conveyed to the Janowska camp were sent to one place. The Gestapo men made another selection from this group, took the victims to the railroad station, and from there they were delivered to the camp. Some family members who asked to say goodbye to their loved ones were murdered by the bullets of the guards.Another contribution was extorted from the Jews of Przemyśl at the end of June 1942. The declaration of the establishment of the ghetto came at the beginning of July 1942. The whole population was ordered to move there by July 15. The borders of the ghetto were fixed in the areas of Jagiellonska, Mnisza, and the Garbarze quarter. The density in the ghetto was terrible. People lived in every possible place, including attics, storerooms, and cellars. In fact on July 15, 1942 the ghetto was enclosed, and everyone who went outside without permission received a heavy punishment, including the death sentence. The authorities forbade non-Jews to help members of the community by the threat of capital punishment. Jews from settlements in the area, including Bircza, Kazifshka, Nizhankovichi, and Dinow also were included in the ghetto.In order to overcome hunger, food was smuggled into the ghetto, although the dangers were great. As it happened, many paid with their lives as they attempted to smuggle. Public kitchens of theJudenratserved food twice a day.In July 1942 the Jews heard about expulsions in other places, and many sought work places which might give immunity from this. Among these work places wereBaudienstand theWehrmachtcamps. Many bribes were paid to ensure work in these places. On July 24, 1942 theJudenratwas ordered to collect all work cards that belonged to the population of the ghetto and deliver them for stamping in the Gestapo. On July 26, 1942 only about 5,000 stamped cards were returned, and while the number in the ghetto was about 22,000. The whole ghetto was in a panic, especially those who lacked a permit for a protected workplace. In a parallel move, the ghetto was surrounded by German policemen and their Ukrainian assistants. The night before Jewish policemen began to concentrate the Jews who were going to be expelled according to German orders. An announcement that was publicized said that the expulsion would not include owners of stamped work cards, members of theJudenrat, employees of theJudenrat, and members of hospital staff. Thousands of Przemyśl Jews already were assembled in the market square at seven in the morning. Although the real purposes of the expulsion were not yet known, many preferred not to come to the square, but to conceal themselves in hiding places. Those who could not get to the square on their own, the old and ill, were taken out of their homes and murdered on a ghetto street. Groups of Jews were taken from the concentrating “yard” to the railroad station and from there to the Belzec extermination camp.During theAktionthere were flights from the “yard.” Many of those who tried to flee were murdered by the shots of German and Ukrainian police. Many corpses of men, women, and children were found in the streets of the ghetto at the end of theAktion. About 7,000 people were delivered to Belzec on the first day of theAktion. The next day, July 28, 1942 the Germans ordered the remaining population of the ghetto in Mnisza Street, and part of Kopernika Street to move to another area of the ghetto in an hour. It was possible to cross from one part to another only by a narrow path. The Germans were adamant that all the property of those who left should remain in the area which had been cleared. This property was moved shortly afterward to Germany by train.Three days later theAktionbegan again. In the second transport another 3,000 people were sent to Belzec. On the last day of theAktionin August 3, 1942 all the people of the ghetto were ordered to assemble in the morning near the offices of theJudenrat. This group included owners of cards that were stamped by the Gestapo, and people without permits.The Gestapo men checked the workplace permits. Those whose permits were unsuitable were added to groups who had been expelled. At the same time the Ukrainians made thorough searches in all the houses of the ghetto, trying to find those who hid. Most of those they found were murdered immediately, and others were taken to the concentration place. The Germans also entered the Jewish hospital and murdered all the patients in the yard. The personnel of the hospital was added to those expelled. After finishing the selection, the ghetto was inhabited mostly by those who worked in vital German factories, and those who succeeded in concealing themselves in various ways. At the end of the day another 3,000 Jews were sent to Belzec. So the general number of those expelled for extermination in thisActionwas about 13,000. At the time of thisAktionthere were many suicides, mainly among families of doctors.The head of theJudenrat, Ignatz Doldig, triedto take advantage of his connections to theWehrmachtofficers in the city at the beginning of the firstAktion, to possibly prevent the expulsion of the Jews who worked in army camps, even if they lacked German police permits. The Gestapo refused to free this group of workers from expulsion, and in reaction theWehrmachtsoldiers closed off one of the bridges, and stopped the train that delivered the victims to Belzec. Only after negotiations between the police and the army at high levels in Krakow did the police at this stage accede to the demands of the army officers, and those workers were not expelled in thisAktion. According to another source the relinquishment of the police was incomplete, and some workers in the army camps were expelled. The punishment for Doldig\'s initiative and that of another member of theJudenrat, A. Rechter, was to be called into the Gestapo, tortured, and murdered. Yakov Ravhan, the last head of the Jewish community before the war, was nominated as head of theJudenratafter the death of Doldig.On August 4, 1942 the day after the firstAktion, the Germans demanded a sum of money to pay for the transportation of those who were expelled to the east (Belzec), and setting up barbed wire around the smaller ghetto.In the middle of September 1942 the Germans announced they would have mercy on Jews who hid, and when they would come out, they would get work and permits for a legal existence in the ghetto. About 100 people answered this call, especially because of the difficult conditions in hiding places, lack of food and water. After a few days those Jews were ordered to concentrate near theJudenratoffices as if to be organized for work. When they were crowded in, they were surrounded by the German police, who loaded them on trucks, as if being taken to a work site, but were really taken to the Jewish cemetery and murdered there.In September and October 1942 the efforts of the Jews in the ghetto were directed to either finding work places that could assure them of remaining in the ghetto, or strenuous hard work to prepare hiding places in which they could remain for a longer time duringAktions. Some of them tried to find shelter on the Aryan side, and there were some who left Przemyśl and went to another city and lived there with Aryan documents. Some groups left for the Romanian and Hungarian borders, but most of them were murdered by the Germans and enemy elements among the local population.TheJudenratinitiated deals with German plants even during those months in order to create workplaces for the remnants of the community. For this purpose they bribed the plant owners and directors. The Gestapo for its part very much restricted the types of Jewish workers who were vital for the German economy.The secondAktionbegan on November 18, 1942. All the owners of permits from workplaces were taken to an army camp in Czarnietski Street, and they were prohibited from leaving the place. At the same time the Germans and their assistants took all the people who remained in the ghetto to the market square. This time also, just as in the firstAktion, many tried to flee on the way, or from the concentration square, but the majority of them were murdered by the Germans and the Ukrainians. The people who were discovered in their hiding places were murdered on the spot. The Jewish orphanage was emptied in thisAktion, and about 80 of its children were added to those about to be exterminated. About 3,500 people were concentrated in a compound during this day. There was also a selection among the workers who were enclosed in the army camp in Czernietski Street. Only a few were permitted to remain in the ghetto, and the others were transferred for expulsion. In all, about 4,000 people were taken away for extermination in Belzec in thisAktion.Some of the artisans were maintained in concentration camp conditions in their plants. Another group of artisans was taken to theWermachtcamp in Bakonczyce near the city.Also after thisAktionthe Germans gave them the possibility of living legally in the ghetto, but after past experiences, those who could stay in their hiding places in shelters preferred to remain in them as long as possible.At the end of November 1942 the ghetto was divided in two: Ghetto A which was near Iwasziewicza Square, held about 800 people who worked for the German economy. Ghetto B held those who were not qualified for work, about 4,000 people. The number of inhabitants of Ghetto B was changed frequently because from time to time the remnants of communities of the region that had been liquidated were brought there. At the same time there were people who had fled from there in order to be rescued from the Nazis. But the number of those who were saved in this way was miniscule. The attitude of the majority of the local non-Jewish population to Jews who tried to save their own lives outside the ghetto was hostility. On the other hand, there were instances of assisting and saving Jews even while risking their own lives. For example, two Ukrainian sisters, Stefania and Helena Podgorski, hid 13 Jews, and supplied them with food until liberation.The people of Ghetto B endeavored to move to Ghetto A, because they assumed their lives would be saved for a longer time. Workshops were established in Ghetto A, including a tailor shop, another for making delicate metal mechanisms, a feather-cleaning shop, laundries, and storage for the clothing of Jewish victims. The role of the Jewish police was to inspect the various working groups. The slightest breach of discipline was severely physically punished, and those accused were transported to Ghetto B, where it was clear to its inhabitants that their fate was to be exterminated in the near future. In Ghetto A there were about 300 illegal Jews, mainly old people and children, assisted by their relatives who were artisans.Officially Ghetto A became a work camp in February 1943 under the direct command of the S.S. From this time continuousAktionsbegan whose purpose was to diminish the number of Jews working, and to take advantage of their labor potential until their final extermination. The Jewish physicians in the camps did their best to save the sick and hide their illnesses from the Germans. In order to strengthen the feeling of degradation of the camp inmates, the Germans ordered them to organize an orchestra; musicians were brought for this purpose from Ghetto B. For a short time the orchestra played public concerts three times a week in the center of the camp. This emphasized more the tragedy of the Jews of Przemyśl that in a condition of very hard labor, illnesses, hunger, and unceasing murder, they were forced to perform concerts in the presence of the German murderers.The inhabitants of Ghetto B were also taken for forced labor in factories in the city and area, and their lives consisted of constant fright because of the never-ending periodic murders while waiting for newAktions. In the middle of April 1943, a group of Jewish youngsters ( apparently from the work camp), led by Green and Bronik Kastner, left the ghetto on their way to the woods in Przemyśl area in order to join the region\'s partisans. The group was caught by the Ukrainians, and all of them except Green were murdered. Green himself returned to the ghetto and was caught with a weapon in his hand.It was clear to the ghetto-dwellers that his fate would be death, but meanwhile integrated in it was another affair that intensified it, and caused more victims. On May 10, 1943, a young Jew called Krebs met a drunken German who entered the ghetto, wrenched his pistol away, and fled. As a reaction the Gestapo burst into the ghetto, murdered some people, took 50 hostages, and threatened to murder them if Krebs was not turned over to them. The Jewish police began to search for him, finally found his trail, then imprisoned him with a friend, and gave them both to the Gestapo in order to save the hostages. The Gestapo ordered a public hanging of three men in the central square of the ghetto: Krebs, his friend, and Green, who was caught beforehand with a weapon in his hand. All the ghetto dwellers were ordered to be present at the hanging. Before his hanging, Green uttered words of contempt for the Nazis. His last words were: “God will revenge us.” After the three were hung, 27 of the hostages were shot, although they promised to liberate all the hostages. The remaining 33 were liberated.A short time after this incident theJudenratwas ordered to give the Gestapo 30 old people in exchange for the liberation of 30 young Jews who were imprisoned by the Germans, and were about to be shot for various “sins.” There were acute arguments among theJudenratmembers if they had to agree to this demand, which meant they would hand over people to the enemy for certain death, even if there were any chance in this way to save others. Finally, after a fight among theJudenratmembers, they decided to fulfill the demand, and Jewish policemen collected 30 adults who were given to the Germans. Afterwards the Germans really liberated the 30 youngsters. This affair preoccupied the remaining community of the ghetto. Those who were saved argued and remained in Przemyśl after the liberation continued to argue about it, because it stressed the severe moral aspects connected to this incident.On November 2, 1943 a newAktionbegan in Ghetto B. All the Jews were ordered to come to the expulsion square, but the majority of them hid in pre-prepared hiding places. The Germans came with a battalion of collaborators. They destroyed the houses and removed those who hid by using heavy equipment. About 3,500 Jews were concentrated after these activities and sent to Auschwitz. About 600 people were removed from the city work camp on September 3, 1943, and were taken to a camp in Szebnie. 250 people remained to organize and classify Jewish property.The Germans continued to search for hidden Jews even afterwards with the assistance of the corps of engineers. Every house that seemed suspicious was bombed by the engineering corps, and in this way the succeeded in discovering more than 300 Jews. In this stage the Germans didn\'t harm them, but concentrated them in two buildings which were surrounded by a barbed wire fence. A newJudenratwas nominated in order to manage this group, headed by Neubort.The Germans announced that in the ghetto every Jew who would leave his hiding place willingly would be taken to the camp in Szebnie It was difficult to continue to hide, so for this reason the last 900 Jews left their hiding places. Some of them were taken to the work camp in Przemyśl and others temporarily remained in the ghetto.Between September 10 and 11, 1943 there were additional selections in the work camp and temporary ghetto. About 1,200 people in the ghetto were executed and shot under the pretext they had evaded previous expulsions. So in groups of 50 the victims were delivered to a big structure in the former ghetto, and after they were ordered to undress, they were shot to death.A small group of people were not executed, but were employed in burning the corpses. Obliteration of the traces of this last murder continued for five days. In the autumn of 1943 about 200 remained in the work camp. On November 28, 1943 100 people were taken out and sent to Szebnie. Only a few of the remainder succeeded in fleeing to the Aryan side. At the end of February 1944 one group was sent to the work camp in Stalowa Wola and the rest to Auschwitz. Later a group of the last women who remained in the Przemyśl work camp was sent to the Plaszow camp and from there to ammunition factories in Skarzysko Kamienna. In fact it was the extermination of the work camp.The Soviet army liberated Przemyśl in July 29, 1944. After a few days about 250 survivors who left their shelters gathered in the city. The remnants elected a “Jewish committee” which was headed by M. Shatner, although despite money problems, it began to help the needy, and aided in searching for survivors. Also there were attempts to remove Jewish children from the Polish families to whom they had been given during the Holocaust. An orphanage was established in Tarnowska Street, and by the initiative of the Jewish community there were 80-100 children were placed in it. The majority of them were taken out of Catholic monasteries in the area. At the beginning of 1946 these orphans were moved to central Jewish institutions in Krakow, Lublin, and Lodz, and from there they continued after a short time on their way out of the borders of Poland.The activities of the Jewish committee were halted in 1947. Surviving Przemyśl Jews who fled during the war to the Soviet Union returned to the city hoping to find someone from their family, but when it was clear that everyone else had not survived, they left and turned to the west.There were about 100 Jews in Przemyśl at the beginning of the 1950\'s, but the majority of them had not been members of the Jewish community before the war. They included the remains of settlements in the area: Biercza, Mostiska, Dinow, and other places.There was a branch of the “Social-Cultural Association of Polish Jews” at the beginning of the 1960\'s. The authorities turned the Sheinbach synagogue into a textile store. Another remaining synagogue, in Zasanie, was turned into a garage. The cemetery was in disrepair. Gradually the remaining Jews of Przemyśl left the city. The majority of them left Poland for destinations overseas, especially to Israel. is aJewishprayer book, containing a set order ofdaily prayers. The wordsiddurcomes from the Hebrew rootHebrew:ס.ד.ר‎ meaning \"order\".Contents[hide]1 History1.1 Creating the siddur1.2 Different Jewish rites2 Complete and weekday siddurim3 Variations and additions on holidays4 Popular siddurim4.1 Ashkenazi Orthodox4.1.1 Hasidic Siddurim4.2 Italian Rite4.3 Sephardic4.3.1 Israel and diaspora4.3.1.1 Israeli, following Rabbi Ovadia Yosef4.3.2 Sephardic Women\'s Siddur4.3.3 Spanish and Portuguese Jews4.3.4 Greek, Turkish and Balkan Sephardim4.3.5 North African Jews4.3.6 Middle Eastern Mizrachim (Sephardim)4.3.6.1 Edot Ha-mizrach (Iraqi)4.3.6.2 Syrian4.4 Yemenite Jews (Teimanim)4.4.1 Baladi4.4.2 Shami4.5 Minhagei Eretz Yisrael4.6 Conservative Judaism4.7 Progressive and Reform Judaism4.8 Reconstructionist Judaism4.9 Jewish Renewal5 Feminist siddurim6 Atheist or humanistic siddurim7 Other siddurim8 Digital siddurim8.1 iPhone8.2 Android8.3 Blackberry9 See also10 References11 Bibliography12 External linksHistory[edit]The earliest parts of Jewish prayer book are theShema Yisrael(\"Hear O Israel\") (Deuteronomy6:4et seq), and thePriestly Blessing(Numbers6:24-26), which are in theTorah. A set of eighteen (currently nineteen) blessings called theShemoneh Esrehor theAmidah(Hebrew, \"standing [prayer]\"), is traditionally ascribed to theGreat Assemblyin the time ofEzra, at the end of the Biblical period.The nameShemoneh Esreh, literally \"eighteen\", is a historical anachronism, since it now contains nineteen blessings. It was only near the end of theSecond Templeperiod that the eighteen prayers of the weekday Amidah became standardized. Even at that time their precise wording and order was not yet fixed, and varied from locale to locale. Many modern scholars believe that parts of the Amidah came from theHebrewapocryphalworkBen Sira.According to theTalmud, soon after the destruction of theTemple in Jerusalema formal version of the Amidah was adopted at a rabbinical council inYavne, under the leadership of RabbanGamaliel IIand his colleagues. However, the precise wording was still left open. The order, general ideas, opening and closing lines were fixed. Most of the wording was left to the individual reader. It was not until several centuries later that the prayers began to be formally fixed. By theMiddle Agesthe texts of the prayers were nearly fixed, and in the form in which they are still used today.The siddur was printed bySoncinoin Italy as early as 1486, though a siddur was first mass-distributed only in 1865.[1]The siddur began appearing in thevernacularas early as 1538.[1]The first Englishtranslationwas published in London in 1738 by an author writing under thepseudonymGamaliel ben Pedahzur; a different translation was released in the United States in 1837.[1]Creating the siddur[edit]Readings from theTorah(five books of Moses) and theNevi\'im(\"Prophets\") form part of the prayer services. To this framework various Jewish sages added, from time to time, various prayers, and, for festivals especially, numerous hymns.The earliest existing codification of the prayerbook was drawn up by RavAmram Gaonof Sura, Babylon, about 850 CE. Half a century later RavSaadia Gaon, also of Sura, composed a siddur, in which the rubrical matter is inArabic. These were the basis of Simcha ben Samuel\'sMachzor Vitry(11th century France), which was based on the ideas of his teacher,Rashi. Another formulation of the prayers was that appended byMaimonidesto the laws of prayer in hisMishneh Torah: this forms the basis of the Yemenite liturgy, and has had some influence on other rites. From this point forward all Jewish prayerbooks had the same basic order and contents.Two authoritative versions of the Ashkenazi siddur were those of Shabbetai Sofer in the 16th century and Seligman Baer in the 19th century; siddurim have also been published reflecting the views ofJacob Emdenand theVilna Gaon.Different Jewish rites[edit]Main article:NusachNusach AshkenazSiddur prayer book fromIrkutsk, Russia, printed in 1918There are differences among, amongst others, theSephardic(includingSpanish and into German, Polish and other European and Eastern-European rites),Bené Roma or Italkim,Romaniote(Greek, once extending to Turkey, Crimea and the southern Italian peninsula) and also Persian-, Kurdish-, Bukharian-, Georgian-, Mountain Jewish-, Ethiopian- and Cochin-Jewish liturgies. Most of these are slight differences in the wording of the prayers; for instance, Oriental Sephardic and some Hasidic prayer books state \"חננו מאתך חכמה בינה ודעת\", \"Graciously bestow upon us from You wisdom (ḥochmah), understanding (binah) and knowledge (daat)\", in allusion to theKabbalisticsefirotof those names, while the Nusach Ashkenaz, as well asWestern Sephardicand other Hasidic versions retain the older wording \"חננו מאתך דעה בינה והשכל\", \"Graciously bestow upon us from You knowledge, understanding, and reason\". In some cases, however, the order of the preparation for the Amidah is drastically different, reflecting the different halakhic and kabbalistic formulae that the various scholars relied on in assembling their siddurim, as well as the minhagim, or customs, or their locales.Some forms of the Sephardi rite are considered to be very overtlykabbalistic, depending on how far they reflect the ritual ofIsaac Luria. This is partly because theTetragrammatonfrequently appears with varying vowel points beneath the letters (unpronounced, but to be meditated upon) and different Names of God appear in small print within the final hei (ה) of the Tetragrammaton. In some editions, there is a Psalm in the preparations for theAmidahthat is printed in the outline of amenorah, and the worshipper meditates on this shape as he recites the psalm.The Ashkenazi rite is more common than the Sephardi rite in America. While Nusach Ashkenaz does contain some kabbalistic elements, such as acrostics and allusions to the sefirot (\"To You, God, is the greatness [gedullah], and the might [gevurah], and the glory [tiferet], longevity [netzach],...\" etc.), these are not easily seen unless the reader is already initiated. It is notable that although many other traditions avoid using the poemAnim Zemirothon the Sabbath, for fear that its holiness would be less appreciated due to the frequency of the Sabbath, the poem is usually sung by Ashkenazi congregations before concluding the SabbathMusafservice with the daily psalm. The ark is opened for the duration of the song.Hasidim, though usually ethnically Ashkenazi, usually use liturgies with varying degrees of Sephardic influence, such asNusach SefardandNusach Ari, in order to follow the order of the prayers set byRabbi Isaac Luria, often called \"Ari HaKadosh\", or \"The Holy Lion\". Although the Ari himself was born Ashkenazi, he borrowed many elements from Sephardi and other traditions, since he felt that they followed Kabbalah andHalachamore faithfully. The Ari did not publish any siddur, but orally transmitted his particular usages to his students with interpretations and certain meditations.[2]Many siddurim containing some form of the Sephardic rite together with the usages of the Ari were published, both by actual Sephardic communities and for the use of Hasidim and other Ashkenazim interested in Kabbalah. In 1803, RabbiSchneur Zalman of Liadicompiled an authoritative siddur from the sixty siddurim that he checked for compliance with Hebrew grammar, Jewish law, and Kabbalah: this is what is known today as the \"Nusach Ari\", and is used by Lubavitch Hasidim. Those that use Nusach HaAri claim that it is an all-encompassing nusach that is valid for any Jew, no matter what his ancestral tribe or identity, a view attributed to theMaggid of Mezeritch.TheMahzorof each rite is distinguished by hymns (piyyutim) composed by authors (payyetanim). The most important writers areYose ben Yoseh, probably in the 6th century, chiefly known for his compositions forYom Kippur;Eleazar Kalir, the founder of the payyetanic style, perhaps in the 7th century;Saadia Gaon; and the Spanish school, consisting ofJoseph ibn Abitur(died in 970),ibn Gabirol,Isaac Gayyath,Moses ibn Ezra,Abraham ibn EzraandJudah ha-Levi, Moses ben Nahman (Nahmanides) andIsaac Luria. In the case of Nusach HaAri, however, many of these High Holiday piyyutim are absent: the older piyyutim were not present in the Sephardic rite, on which Nusach HaAri was based, and the followers of the Ari removed the piyyutim composed by the Spanish school.Complete and weekday siddurim[edit]Some siddurim have only prayers for weekdays; others have prayers for weekdays andShabbat. Many have prayers for weekdays, Shabbat, and the three Biblical festivals,Sukkot(the feast of Tabernacles),Shavuot(the feast of weeks) andPesach(Passover). The latter are referred to as aSiddur Shalem(\"complete siddur\").Variations and additions on holidays[edit]There are many additional liturgical variations and additions to the siddur for theYamim Noraim(The \"Days of Awe\"; High Holy Days, i.e.Rosh HaShanahandYom Kippur). As such, a special siddur has developed for just this period, known as amahzor(also:machzor). Themahzorcontains not only the basic liturgy, but also manypiyutim, Hebrew liturgical poems. Sometimes the termmahzoris also used for the prayer books for the three pilgrim festivals, Pesach, Shavuot and Sukkot.OnTisha b\'Av, a special siddur is used that includes the text of theBook of Lamentations, theTorahandHaftarahreadings for that day, andKinotor special mournful piyyutim for that day. This siddur is usually called \"Kinot\" as well. Traditionally, every year many Jews hope that theMessiahwill come and theThird Templewill be rebuilt, soTisha b\'Avwill not happen again. So after the fast ends, many traditions place theirKinotsiddurim in ageniza, or a burial place for sacred texts.Popular siddurim[edit]Below are listed many popular siddurim used by religious Jews. This list mostly excludes prayer books specifically for the High Holidays; seeMachzor (Popular versions).Variety of popular Siddurim.Ashkenazi Orthodox[edit]Main articles:Ashkenazi JewsandOrthodox JudaismThe Authorised Daily Prayer Book(a.k.a. the \"Hertz Siddur\"), ed.Joseph Hertz. NY, Block Publ\'g Co., rev. ed. 1948. (an annotated edition of \"Singer\'s Prayer Book\" of 1890)(Hebrew-English)Siddur Ha-Shalem(a.k.a. theBirnbaum Siddur) Ed.Philip Birnbaum. The Hebrew Publishing Metsudah Siddur: A New Linear Prayer BookZiontalis. (Hebrew-English)The Authorised Daily Prayer Book of the British Commonwealth, translation by Chief Rabbi SirJonathan Sacks(the new version of \"Singer\'s Prayer Book\") (Hebrew-English)TheArtscrollSiddur, Mesorah Publications (In a number of versions including an interlinear translation and fairly popular today.) (Hebrew, Hebrew-English, Hebrew-Russian, Hebrew-Spanish, Hebrew-French) The \" great innovation\" of the Artscroll was that it was the first siddur \" made it possible for even a neophyte ba’al teshuvah (returnee to the faith) to function gracefully in the act of prayer, bowing at the correct junctures, standing, sitting and stepping back\" at the correct place in the service. \"[3]SiddurRinat Yisrael,Hotsa\'at Moreshet,Bnei Brak, Israel. (In a number of versions, popular in Israel.) (Hebrew)Siddur Siach Yitzchak(Hebrew and Dutch), Nederlands-Israelitisch Kerkgenootschap, Amsterdam 1975 (in a number of editions since 1975)ISBN978-90-71727-04-7Siddur Tefilas Kol Peh(Hebrew)Siddur Tefilas Sh\'ai, Feldheim Publishers: Israel/NewYork (Hebrew)Siddur HaGra(reflecting views of theVilna Gaon)Siddur Aliyos Eliyahu(Popular among followers of the Vilna Gaon who live in Israel and abroad) (Hebrew)Siddur Kol Bo(Hebrew)Koren Sacks Siddur(Hebrew-English),Koren Publishers Jerusalem: based on latest Singer\'s prayer book, above (described as the first siddur to \"pose a fresh challenge to the ArtScroll dominance.\"[4])SiddurNehalel beShabbat, the completeShabbatsiddur in the projected siddurNehalelseries (Nevarech Press, Hebrew and English), in which photographs juxtaposed with the texts portray their meanings. The purpose of this innovation is to direct the user\'s attention to the meanings of the traditional prayers, thus contributing to the achieving ofkavanah, a central requirement of authentic prayer.[5]A rendering of both the siddur and the entire High Holyday prayer book into English rhymed verse has been made by Rabbi Dr. Jeffrey M Cohen. The Siddur in Poetry (London, Gnesia Publications, 2012) and The Machzor in Poetry (London, Gnesia Publications, 2012).HasidicSiddurim[edit]Beis Aharon V\'Yisraelis the second published siddur ever produced byKarliner Chassidim. It supersededSiddur Beis Aharon V\'Yisraelpublished by Rebbe Yochanan Perlow (1900–1956).The Breslov Siddurpublished in a 2014 hardcover edition (828 pages in length) is one of the few Hasidic siddurim available in an English language translation (and contains the original text). Translated by Avraham Sutton and Chaim Kramer. Y. Hall is the HaShem(the version currently used byChabad-Lubavitch), available in a Hebrew-English version.Siddur Torah Or(the Alter Rebbe\'s original edition)Siddur Tefillah La-El Chayi(Hebrew-English siddur released in 2014 with commentary based on the teachings ofBreslov)In general, aNusach Sefardsiddur can be a good substitute for a specific Hasidic siddur. Many siddurim listed above have Nusach Sefard versions, including (among others) ArtScroll, Koren Sacks and Rinat Yisrael.4355


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