32BC Greece Marc Antony Roman Legionary Eagle Standards Praetorian Naval Galley

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32BC Greece Marc Antony Roman Legionary Eagle Standards Praetorian Naval Galley:
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Silver Roman Denarius of Co-Triumvir (Co-Dictator) Marc Antony Featuring Depictions of Praetorian War Galley (Flying Banners and with Prow Rostra) and Legionary Eagle and Battle Standards. Struck in Greece About 32 B.C.

OBVERSE DEPICTION: Roman Praetorian (Emperor’s Guard) War Galley.

OBVERSE INSCRIPTION: ANT AVG III VIR R P C.

REVERSE DEPICTION: A Roman Legionary Eagle between Two Legionary Battle Standards.

REVERSE INSCRIPTION: (None present, but should indicate legion number).

ATTRIBUTION: Patrae (Achaia, Greece), about 32 B.C.

SIZE/MEASUREMENTS:

Diameter: 17 x 13 millimeters.

Weight: 3.11 grams.

NOTE: Coin is mounted free of charge into your choice of pendant settings (shown in sterling silver pendant), and includes a sterling silver chain in your choice of 16\", 18\", or 20\" length, (details below or click here). We can reverse coin in mounting if you prefer opposite side showing front.

DETAIL: This is a very handsome silver denarius produced in about 32 B.C. in the ancient city of Patrae, Achaia, Greece, under the authority of the Roman Co-Triumvir (Co-Dictator) Marcus Antonius, known to history as “Marc Antony”; yes, that Marc Antony, as in “Cleopatra and Marc Antony”. Formerly one of Julius Caesar’s lieutenants, after Caesar’s assassination Marc Antony became one of Rome’s leading contenders in the struggle for political supremacy. At the time this coin was struck, Marc Antony was the defacto Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire (the wealthiest portion of the empire containing about 70% of the population and virtually all the major cities), and Octavian was the defacto Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. Only a year or so separated this coin from the Battle of Actium in 31 B.C., which would see Octvius emerge as the undisputed master of the Roman World (and her first emperor), and would lead to the Hollywood enshrined suicide of Marc Antony and Cleopatra.

This specimen is part of a huge number of similar coin issues struck under the authority of Marc Antony, particularly to pay the Roman legionary armies under his command. These coins were hastily minted in the hundreds of millions, and tend to be heavily circulated as they remained “coin of the realm” in the Eastern Roman Empire for even centuries after the combined forces of Marc Antony and Cleoptra had fallen to those of Octavius and Agrippa. So as in the case of this specimen, the coinage tends to be a heavily worn. This coin has been “clipped”. “Clipping” is a rather common characteristic of coins which were circulated in late antiquity and the early medieval period, particularly in Britain. In fact, the practice continued in Britain for many centuries, well into for instance the time of Shakespeare (who mentioned it in “Henry the Fifth”). Clipping involved the practice of clipping a small piece of silver off of each coin that passed through one’s hand. Eventually one would have a rather significant pile of silver clippings (large enough say to produce a piece of jewelry.

Of course the consequence was that the coins so clipped became increasingly smaller in size. Generally they would be clipped down to the basic thematic elements, so that one could still distinguish what denomination the coin was, as clipping it beyond that point might render it unacceptable for further circulation – meaning you were stuck with it. So ancient coinage was oftentimes clipped to the point where the coin was still distinguishable, but right up to that point. In the late seventeenth and early eighteenth century as Britain recalled much of the coinage in circulation, much of the coinage was up to 50% underweight. As you can see, this specimen has been repeatedly clipped. Most of the legends and all of the thematic elements remain present on the obverse side, and on the reverse side, which shows heavier signs of circulation, nonetheless all of the thematic elements remain distinguishable (the legionary eagle the two standards), though faint. As described, as was the practice in ancient Britannia, just enough of the themes and legends remain unclipped so as to make certain that the coin type remained clear and unambiguous.

So here we have evidence of this coin likely having been circulated centuries after it was struck, and probably having made its way from the Eastern Roman Empire all the way to Britain in the possession of a Roman legionnaire (and many of the Legionnaires station in Britain had been transferred from elsewhere within the empire). In fact recent studies have established that even after the fall of Britannia (Roman Colonial Britain), the authorities in Britain struggled to maintain the Roman monetary system after the collapse of the provincial government, even continuing to strike copies of the coinage struck at the Roman mints in Britannia. How long the local governments continued striking Roman coinage has still not yet been established, but there si some evidence that it may have continued even into the seventh century, and thus Roman coinage, even this coin perhaps, continued circulating within Roman Britain for centuries after it was produced.

Though this specimen is a little bit undersized as a consequence of being clipped, it is nonetheless a very thick coin, and so it is still within the weight range ordinary for the series (which is why it may have been clipped s severely, as it was “overweight”). Relative to the typical surviving specimen, it is without a doubt a nice specimen, much of the original legends and most of the thematic elements still present. The legend on the front of the coin, “ANT AVG III VIR R P C”. “ANT AVG” is at the top of the coin (only “ANT” is legible on this specimen at the upper left corner of the coin), and “III VIR R P C” is at the bottom of the coin (the entirety of this portion of the legend remains intact). Of these abbreviations, “ANT” is an abbreviation for “ANTONIVS”, referring to his name, “MARCVS ANTONINVS” (“Marcus Antonius”). “AVG” is an abbreviation for “AVGVR”, or “augur”. An augur was one of Rome\'s pagan religious priests whose ceremonial function (the ceremony known as an auguration) was to prognosticate good or evil, favor or disfavor, by observing the flight, the chirps or screams of birds (chiefly ravens), and by observing how enthusiastically chickens ate the ceremonial offerings of cakes provided by those supplicants wishing their fortunes prognosticated. Augurs also took note of phenomena of the heavens (comets, falling stars, etc.), and consulted with the Haruspices (who practiced divination by examining the entrails of slaughtered sacrificial animals).

That the powers of an augurship should be attributed to or conferred upon Marc Antony is believed by historians to refer to his relationship as co-triumvir with Lepidus, who was after all, “Pontifex Maximus” (“Chief Priest”), the greatest augur in all Rome. In fact many of Marc Antony’s coins included depictions of an augur’s “professional tools”, a wand known to the Romans as a “lituus”, a praefericulum (a ceremonial handled metal pitcher used to pour offerings or libations of wine), and a raven or chicken. Julius Caesar had taken the title of Pontifex Maximus for himself (previously the title had always belonged to a high priest distinct from the emperor), in essence, making Caesar the focal point of the Roman State Religion. Of course ultimately Julius Caesar was deified, as was Octavius Augustus, his adoptive heir. Octavius also assumed the title of Pontifex Maximus after the death in exile of Lepidus. So by attributing augural powers to himself, as did Caesar before him and as would August after him, Marc Antony was also laying claim to not only political, but also religious (co) leadership of Rome. There were even coins struck of Marc Antony showing him in an augur’s veil and robe and holding a lituus (wand).

“III VIR R P C” is an abbreviation referring to the second triumvirate (actually to be technical, it is short first for “III VIR” an abbreviation for “III viri aere argento auro flando feiundo\" or \"three men for the casting and striking of bronze, silver and gold”; then RPC refers to the republic), meaning literally “One of Three Men for the Regulation of the Republic”. It refers to the “second triumvirate” (a arrangement for sharing dictatorial powers) between Marc Antony, Octavius (Julius Caesar’s nephew and adoptive heir), and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. The second triumvirate was formed in 43 B.C., and marked the end of the Roman Republic (which had already essentially “died” with the dictatorships of Sulla through 78 B.C., then the first triumvirate through 49 B.C., and then the second triumvirate commencing in 43 B.C., these dictatorial periods interspersed by civil wars).

The first triumvirate a generation before had been an unofficial power-sharing agreement between Julius Caesar, Pompeii the Great, and Crassus (the richest man in Rome), which had commenced in 60 B.C., dissolving when Crassus died leading a Roman Legionary army in an ill-conceived campaign the Parthians in the heat of summer in Mesopotamia (Iran/Iraq) in 53 B.C. (leaving two triumvirs), and then in 49 B.C. when Caesar crossed the Rubicon setting off the civil war between Caesar and Pompeii the Great. The Second Triumvirate was an official power-sharing agreement, and existed for two five-year terms, covering the period 43 BC – 33 BC. The Second Triumvirate was legally established in 43 B.C. as the Triumviri Rei Publicae Constituendae Consulari Potestate (\"Triumvirs for Confirming the Republic with Consular Power\", invariably abbreviated as \"III VIR RPC\"). It possessed supreme political authority. As was the first triumvirate, it essentially consisted of dictatorial powers shared by three men.

As a result of the civil war arising from the murder of Julius Caesars and Octavian’s claim to the “dignitas” of Caesar, Octavian’s forces had been at was with the forces of Antony and Lepidus in upper Italy when the three met near present day Bologna and agreed rather than to fight amongst themselves, they would unite and seize power. First order of business was to raise money, which they did by “proscribing” most of Rome’s wealthiest citizens (declaring them enimies of the state, executingthem, and siezing their assets). Some of the more notable victims were Marcus Tullius Cicero, who had been one of Marc Antony’s most outspoken advocates, and two of Julius Caesar’s former legates Quintus Tullius Cicero (Marcus Tullius Cicero\'s younger brother) and Lucius Iulius Caesar, Caesar\'s first cousin once removed (and Antony\'s uncle), and one of Julius Caesar\'s closest friends.

The Triumvirate immediately launched the second civil war of the post-Caesar period, against two of Julius Caesar\'s murderers, Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus, who had managed to flee to the east and gained control of most of Rome’s Eastern provinces, including Macedonia, Asia Minor, and Syria. In 42 B.C. Octavian and Antony defeated Brutus and Cassius in two battles fought at Philippi. After the Battle, the Triumvirs agreed to divide the provinces of the Republic into spheres of influence; Octavian took control of the West, Antony of the East, and Lepidus (who had succeeded Julius Caesar as Pontifex Maximus) of Hispania and Africa. This pact enacted by the Treaty of Brundisium in September 40 B.C.

While Antony cemented his hold in the East, Octavian launched a campaign against the pirate commander Sextus Pompeius (an ex-Roman General who was the youngest son of Pompeii the Great, who had been Julius Caesar’s antagonist in the civil war commenced when Julis Carsae crossed the Rubicon). The campaign against Sextus Pompeius, really the belated end of the previous civil war, was commanded by Octavian\'s lieutenant and vala genius Agrippa. Octavian and Agrippa emerged victorius in 36 B.C., but only after having “borrowed” significant naval forces from Marc Antony the year before when, in 37 B.C., the triumvirate was renewed for a second five year term.

The third triumvirate had cooperated in Octavian\'s campaign against Pompeius, but at the end of the conflict had foolishly attempted to seize control of Octavian\'s victorious legions when he delcared himself to be sole emperor of Rome. The legions immediately abandoned Lepidus. Octavian expelled Lepidus from the Triumvirate, but allowed him to retain his Pontificate and to retire into exile. Despite strenthening their bonds through marriage (Marc Antony having married Octavia, Octavian\'s sister, and Octavian having married Antony\'s stepdaughter Clodia Pulchra), Marc Antony and Octavian had an uneasy alliance of convenience. Rather than living with his wife (and Octaviuan’s sister) Octavia, Antony instead openly lived in Alexandria with Cleopatra VII of Egypt, even siring children with her.

A master of propaganda, Octavian turned public opinion against Marc Antony, eventually manipulating the Senate into declaring war against Marc Antony. Octavian\'s forces decisively defeated those of Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in Greece in September 31 BC, chasing them to Egypt in 30 BC. Both Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide in Alexandria, and Octavian personally took control of Egypt and Alexandria. With the complete defeat of Antony and the marginalization of Lepidus, Octavian, having restyled himself \"Augustus\", was left sole master of the Roman world, and proceeded to establish himself as the first Roman \"emperor\".

The obverse of the coin depicts a Roman Praetorian War Galley, banners flying off of the bow, and a rostra (ram) protruding from the prow as well. The galley of the ancient Mediterranean was a large seagoing vessel propelled primarily by oars. The ancient navies of the Mediterranean (starting with ancient Egypt, Crete, and then Phoenicia and Greece) used sail-equipped galleys for both war and commerce. The Phoenicians were apparently the first to introduce the bireme about 700 B.C. which had two banks of oars staggered on either side of the vessel, with the upper bank situated above the lower so as to permit the oars of the upper bank to clear the oars below. The addition of an outrigger permitted the employment of a third bank of oars, the rowers of which sat above and outside the other two; such a ship, which was called a trireme, was probably first constructed about 500 B.C. by the Greeks.

A distinctive body of naval tactics based on the use of war galleys developed in the Mediterranean from the fifth century B.C. onwards. In imitation of contemporary land warfare, the galleys cruised in columns, generally several abreast. Upon engaging the enemy they assumed a phalanx-like formation in lines abreast. In this manner each galley could give protection to its neighbors’ exposed sides. At the same time it could confront the enemy with its bow, which was equipped with a ram, grappling irons, and missile-hurling devices.

By late Roman times, war galleys had become sharply differentiated from merchantmen by their longer, narrower hulls and prow rams. The wider, deeper hulled merchantmen relied increasingly on the sail, and ultimately all-sail vessels came into use. Galleys, however, were not entirely replaced for commerce even in late medieval times. More expensive (because of the larger crews) but more maneuverable, the galley remained the principal ship for peace and war into the High Middle Ages.

For instance the Vikings’ longships were small galleys with up to 10 oars on a side and a square sail and were capable of carrying 50 or 60 men. Byzantium, Venice, Genoa, and other medieval sea powers built much more elaborate galleys; by the 13th century Italian galleys were trading in Flanders and England and on the northwest coast of Africa. Though the advent of the lateen (fore-and-aft) sail and the stern rudder rendered the galley obsolete for commerce, it retained its military importance into the 16th century. It played the leading role at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571.

Founded in 311 B.C., the Roman navy was originally insignificant with nothing more than a few light coastal patrol ships. In fact, the Roman Navy was never anything more than an adjunct to the Roman Legionary Army, which held much greater prestige in the mind of the Romans. It took fifty years after its founding before the Romans constructed a significant naval force, that when faced with a conflict with the maritime empire of Carthage. During the course of the ensuing First Punic War, the Roman navy was massively expanded and played a vital role in the Roman victory and the Roman Republic\'s eventual ascension to complete dominance in the Mediterranean Sea.

In the course of the first half of the 2nd century B.C., Rome went on to destroy Carthage (as well as Corinth), and subdued the Hellenistic kingdoms of the Eastern Mediterranean. The Romans achieved complete mastery of the Mediterranean, which they referred to as “Mare Nostrum” (“our sea”). A century later Roman fleets were again prominent in Pompeii’s wars against the loosely confederated empire pirates, scourge of the Western Mediterrrnanean, and then again in the civil wars that brought down the Republic. In 31 B.C. the great naval Battle of Actium, wherein the forces of Marc Antony and Cleopatra were pitted against those of Octavius Augustus (and his brilliant Admiral Agrippa) ended the civil wars, culminating in the final victory of Augustus and the establishment of the Roman Empire.

During the Imperial period, the Mediterranean became a peaceful \"Roman lake\". In the absence of a maritime enemy, the navy was reduced mostly to patrol and transport duties. On the fringes of the Empire however, in new conquests or, increasingly, in defense against barbarian invasions, the Roman fleets were still engaged in warfare. The decline of the Empire in the 3rd century took a heavy toll on the navy, which was reduced to a shadow of its former self, both in size and in combat ability. By the time of the successive sacks of Rome in the early fifth century, the diminished Roman fleets were incapable of offering any resistance.

Though the Western Roman Empire fell, the Greco-Roman naval tradition survived in the Eastern Roman Empire as the Byzantine Navy. Unlike their Western Counterparts in Rome, the Byzantine Navy was not merely an adjunct to their armies. Both the Mediterranean and the naval forces which patrolled tht body of water were vital to the very existence of Byzantium, which many historians have called a \"maritime empire\". At its peak the Byzantine Navy possessed 300 warships, 42,000 sailors, and controlled the Black Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Danube.

The Byzantine Navy was instrumental in maintaining Constantinople’s dominance in the Mediterranean for many centuries. During that time that the sea was to become a battleground between Byzantines and Arabs. In this struggle, the Byzantine fleets were critical, not only for the defense of the Empire\'s far-flung possessions around the Mediterranean basin, but also in the repulsion of seaborne attacks against the imperial capital of Constantinople itself. Through the use of the newly invented \"Greek fire\" (a flaming mixture of petroleum and bitumen which could be “squirted” at opposing naval forces), the Byzantine navy\'s best-known and feared secret weapon, Constantinople was saved from several sieges and numerous naval engagements were won for the Byzantines.

Backing up in time to examine “Praetorian Galleys” as depicted on the coins of Marc Antony, these Praetorian Galleys formed the naval counterpart of the Praetorian Guard, both constituting a permanent military force (on land and afloat) at the emperor\'s direct disposal. Up until the Battle of Actium, most of Rome’s fleet of war galleys had been based at Ostia, Rome’s satellite port city. In 27 B.C. it was moved to the new harbor of Portus Julius at Misenum in the Bay of Naples. It was commanded by a “Praefectus Classis”, drawn from the highest levels of Rome’s Noble (equestrian) class. The mission of this fleet was to control the western part of the Mediterranean Sea. Its crews were recruited mostly from the East, especially from Egypt. Since the conclusion of the wars against Carthage several centuries earlier, Rome did not face any significant naval threat in the Mediterranean, and after the Battle of Actium in where the combined naval forces of Marc Antony and Cleoptara lost to the forces of Agrippa and Octavius Augustus, the bulk of the fleet\'s crews were idle.

Some of the sailors were based in Rome itself, initially housed in the barracks of the Praetorian Guard, but later given their own barracks, the “Castra Misenatium” near the Colosseum. There they were used to stage mock naval battles, and operated the mechanism that deployed the canvas canopy of the Colosseum. The Emperor Nero used some of its leading officers in the murder of his mother Agrippina the Younger. In 192 A.D. the fleet supported Didius Julianus, and then participated in the campaign of Septimius Severus against Pescennius Niger, transporting his legions to the East.

The fleet remained active in the East for the next few decades, where the emergence of the Persian Sassanid Empire posed a new threat. In 258–260 A.D. the fleet was employed in the suppression of a rebellion in North Africa. In 324 A.D. the fleet\'s ships participated in the campaign of Constantine the Great against Licinius and his decisive naval victory in the Battle of the Hellespont. Afterwards, the bulk of the ships were moved to Constantinople, where the emperor Constantine had moved the capital of the Roman Empire. Ultimately these Praetorian Galleys would form the nucleus of the great Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire’s Fleet, one of the greatest Naval Forces in the early Medieval World.

The reverse of the coin is supposed to bear a legend “LEG ??”, which is an abbreviation for whatever numbered Legionary Roman Army the coin would have been struck for (somewhere between the number two and twenty-three). The depiction on the reverse of the coin is that of a Roman Legionary Eagle position between two Roman Legionary Standards. Though well worn and somewhat faint, the thematic elements are still discernible. The eagle was the principal standard of the Roman legion, and continued to be used as such so long as that body existed. In the early Republic a number of “mascots” had been used by the legionary forces, including the eagle, the wolf, the minotaur, the horse, and the boar. However during the second consulship of Gaius Marius in 104 B.C., the eagle became the exclusive standard for the Roman Legions. These legionary eagles, not great in size, were affixed to spears, the lower ends of which were sharp-pointed for the purpose of their being more easily planted in the ground. They are exhibited on coins as holding in their talons a thunderbolt. Oftentimes in bronze, silver was preferred for the material of the eagle itself, and the reason, according to Pliny, a historian writing at that time, was that it is a metal which is seen at the greatest distance.

Perhaps one of the most prolific uses of the image of the legionary eagle was on the legionary coins of Mark Antony (such as this specimen). In this depiction which was produced on literally hundreds of millions of silver coins, the eagle is placed between two standards, distinguished with three circular appendages, and terminating above in a spear-point. You can see an especially fine example of one of these silver denarii here. Eagles between simple ensigns, of a similar form and the same number, appear on denarii of Clodius Macer and of Septimius Severus; also on the well known coins which record the recovery of the ensigns from the Parthians (by whom they had been captured in battle).

Depictions of legionary eagles may also be found amongst the colonial mintages, such as in Acci, Caesar-Augusta, Patrae, Emerita, etc. On coins of Octavius Augustus commemorating the restitution of the standards, Mars Ultor appears, with a legionary eagle in his right hand, and in his left an ensign (or standard, if you prefer). The legionary eagle appears fixed to a ship\'s prow, and held by two right hands, on a brass coin of the Emperor Nerva, and also appears in the hands of a number of Roman emperors on the coinage of Marcus Aurelius, Commodus, Severus Alexander, Philip II, Probus, etc. An engraved Roman Legionary Eagle was also a popular theme for jewelry, especially rings and intaglios.

Roman standards or ensigns were known as “signa militaria”, and there were many variations. The most ancient standard employed by the Romans is said to have been a handful (maniple) of straw fixed to the top of a spear or pole. Hence the company of soldiers belonging to it was called Manipulus. The bundle of hay or fern was soon succeeded by the figures of animals, of which the Roman Historian Pliny the Elder described five: the eagle, the wolf, the minotaur, the horse, and the boar.

The wolf-headed standard was known as a “draco”, and was specifically a Roman cavalry military standard borne by a draconarius. Thought to have originated with the Dacians, it took the form of a gaping wolf\'s head and mouth formed from cast metal, to the end of which was attached a \'body\' of cloth or silk fabric in the form of a windsock. When charging, the body would billow out behind the head. It is also thought that the draco was sometimes fitted with a whistle of some form, since there are descriptions of it making a howling sound when borne into battle.

In the second consulship of Gaius Marius (104 B.C.) the four standards depicting four-legged animals were laid aside, no longer used in standards, and the eagle (Aquila) alone was retained. It was made of silver, or bronze, with outstretched wings, but was probably of a relatively small size, since a standard-bearer (signifer) under Julius Caesar is said in circumstances of danger to have wrenched the eagle from its staff and concealed it in the folds of his girdle.

Under the later emperors the eagle was carried, as it had been for many centuries, with the legion, a legion being on that account sometimes called aquila. Each cohort had for its own ensign the serpent or dragon, which was woven on a square piece of cloth (“textilis anguis”), elevated on a gilt staff, to which a cross-bar was adapted for the purpose, and carried by the draconarius. Another figure used in the standards was a ball (orb), supposed to have been emblematic of the dominion of Rome over the world. As well, a bronze figure of the Goddess Victoria (“Nike” to the Greeks) was sometimes fixed at the top of the staff, as we see it sculptured, together with small statues of Mars, on the Column of Trajan and the Arch of Constantine.

Under the eagle or other such emblem (such as Nike or a globe) was often placed a head of the reigning emperor, which was to the army the object of religious adoration. The name of the emperor, or of him who was acknowledged as emperor, was sometimes inscribed as well. The pole used to carry the eagle had at its lower extremity an iron point (cuspis) to fix it in the ground, and to enable the aquilifer in case of need to repel an attack.

The loss of a legion’s standards in battle was considered a catastrophic, demoralizing, and humiliating loss. For instance in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, a crushing ambush which forever halted Roman expansion across the Rhine, Legio XVII, Legio XVIII, and Legio XIX all lost their standards (along with all three legionary armies). Rome ultimately mounted an expedition led by Germanicus (nephew of the Emperor Tiberius, father of the Emperor Caligula, brother of the Emperor Claudius) specifically to recover the standards, after which they were placed within the “Temple of the Avenging Mars”, the ruins of which stand today in the Forum of Augustus in Rome.

Notwithstanding some obscurity in the use of terms, it appears that, while the standard of the legion was properly called “aquila”, those of the cohorts were in a special sense of the term called “signa”, their bearers being “signiferi”, and that those of the manipuli or smaller divisions of the cohort were denominated “vexilla”, their bearers being “vexillarii”. Also, those who fought in the first ranks of the legion before the standards of the legion and cohorts were called “antesignani”.

The minor divisions of a cohort, called centuries, each had an ensign, inscribed with the number both of the cohort and of the century. This, together with the diversities of the crests worn by the centurions, enabled each soldier to take his place with ease. In the Arch of Constantine at Rome there are four sculptured panels near the top which exhibit a great number of standards. In the instance of this specimen, the denarius minted by Marc Antony to pay his legions are another prolific example in the ancient Roman world a depiction of the aquila of the various legions under Marc Antony’s command. When Constantine embraced Christianity, a figure or emblem of Christ, woven in gold upon purple cloth, was substituted for the head of the emperor. This richly ornamented standard was called labarum. The labarum is still used today by the Orthodox Church in the Sunday service. The entry procession of the chalice whose contents will be used in holy communion is modeled after the procession of the standards of the Roman army.

The coin you see offered here was struck in Patrae (the present day city of Patra on the west coast of Greece, and the country\'s third largest city) was the principal city of Greek Achaia on the Peloponnesus. Ultimately it gained the status of a self-governing Roman Colony during the reign of Octavius Augustus. The first traces of settlement in Patras date to as early as in the 3rd millennium B.C., and it was a flourishing city by the Mycenean period (1580–1100 BC). Mythology has it that after the Dorian invasion, a group of Achaeans from Laconia led by the eponymous Patreus established a colony. During antiquity, Patras remained a farming city. It would be in Roman times that it was to become an important port.

After 280 B.C. but prior to the Roman occupation of Greece, Patras played a significant role in the foundation of the second \"Achaean League\". The city’s significance grew following the Roman occupation of Greece in 146 B.C., and ultimately gained significance as a center of the early Christian world, and it is the city where St. Andrew was crucified. During Byzantine times Patras continued to be an important port as well as an industrial center, and archeological remains indicate that the city was very prosperous from the ninth century. In 1204 Patras was conquered by the Fourth Crusade, and became the seat of the Latin Duchy of Athens within the Principality of Achaea. In 1387 Juan Fernández de Heredia, grand master of the order of the Knights Hospitaller at Rhodes, captured the city.

In 1408 Patras became a Venetian possession, and by the close of the 15th century the city was governed by the archbishop in the name of the pope. It was nevertheless seized once more by the Byzantines 1430, who were immediately contested by the Ottoman Empire. In 1458 Patras was conquered by the Ottoman Empire. Though granted special privileges and tax reductions, the city never became a major center of commerce for the Ottomans. Venice and Genoa attacked and captured it several times during the 15th and 16th centuries, but never re-established their rule effectively. It continued to be held by the Turks until it was liberated in 1828 by the French expeditionary force in the Peloponnesus. Patras developed quickly into the second largest urban centre in late 19th century Greece, benefiting from its role as the main export port for the agricultural produce of the Peloponnesus.

Your purchase includes, upon request, mounting of this coin in either pendant style “a” or “d” as shown here (above, left). Pendant style “a” is a clear, airtight acrylic capsule designed to afford your ancient coin maximum protection from both impact damage and degradation. It is the most “politically correct” mounting. Style “d” is a sterling silver pendant. Either pendant styles include a sterling silver chain (16\", 18\", or 20\"). Upon request, there are also an almost infinite variety of other pendants which might well suit both you and your ancient coin pendant, and include both sterling silver and solid 14kt gold mountings, including those shown here. As well, upon request, we can also make available a huge variety of chains in lengths from 16 to 30 inches, in metals including sterling silver, 14kt gold fill, and solid 14kt gold.

HISTORY OF COINAGE: Coins came into being during the seventh century B.C. in Lydia and Ionia, part of the Greek world, and were made from a naturally occurring alloy of gold and silver. Each coin blank was heated and struck with a hammer between two engraved dies. Unlike modern coins, they were not uniformly round. Each coin was wonderfully unique. Coinage quickly spread to the island and city states of Western Greece. Alexander the Great (336-323 B.C.) then spread the concept of coinage throughout the lands he conquered. Today ancient coins are archaeological treasures from the past, and on many occasions have provided profound new knowledge to historians.

They were buried for safekeeping because of their value and have been slowly uncovered throughout modern history. Oftentimes soldiers the night before battle would bury their coins and jewelry, hoping and believing that they would live long enough to recover them, and to return to their family. Killed in battle, these little treasure hoards remain until today scattered throughout Western and Eastern Europe, even into the Levant and Persia. As well, everyone from merchants to housewives found the safest place to keep their savings was buried in a pot, or in some other secretive location. If they met an unexpected end, the whereabouts of the merchants trade goods or the household\'s sugar jar money might never be known.

Recently a commercial excavation for a new building foundation in London unearthed a Roman mosaic floor. When archaeologists removed the floor, they found 7,000 silver denarii secreted beneath the floor. Even the Roman mints buried their produce. There were over 300 mints in the Roman Empire striking coinage. Hoards of as many as 40,000 coins have been found in a single location near these ancient sites. Ancient coins reflect the artistic, political, religious, and economic themes of their times. The acquisition of ancient coins is a unique opportunity to collect art which has been appreciated throughout the centuries.

Coins of the Roman Empire most frequently depicted the Emperor on the front of the coins, and were issued in gold, silver, and bronze. The imperial family was also frequently depicted on the coinage, and, in some cases, coins depicted the progression of an emperor from boyhood through maturity. The reverse side of often served as an important means of political propaganda, frequently extolling the virtues of the emperor or commemorating his victories. Many public works and architectural achievements such as the Coliseum and the Circus Maximus were also depicted.

As well, important political events such as alliances between cities were recorded on coinage. Many usurpers to the throne, otherwise unrecorded in history, are known only through their coins. Interestingly, a visually stunning portrayal of the decline of the Roman Empire is reflected in her coinage. The early Roman bronze coins were the size of a half-dollar. Within 100-150 years those had shrunk to the size of a nickel. And within another 100-150 years, to perhaps half the size of a dime. At the height of the Roman Empire there were over 400 mints producing coinage, in locations as diverse as Britain, Africa, and the Near East. The annual produce of these mints is estimated to have been between one and two billion coins.

ANCIENT ROMAN HISTORY: One of the greatest civilizations of recorded history was the ancient Roman Empire. The Roman civilization, in relative terms the greatest military power in the history of the world, was founded in the 8th century (B.C.) on seven hills alongside Italy’s Tiber River. By the 4th Century (B.C.) the Romans were the dominant power on the Italian Peninsula, having defeated the Etruscans, Celts, Latins, and Greek Italian colonies. In the 3rd Century (B.C.) the Romans conquered Sicily, and in the following century defeated Carthage, and controlled Greece.

Throughout the remainder of the 2nd Century (B.C.) the Roman Empire continued its gradual conquest of the Hellenistic (Greek Colonial) World by conquering Syria and Macedonia; and finally came to control Egypt and much of the Near East and Levant (Holy Land) in the 1st Century (B.C.). The pinnacle of Roman power was achieved in the 1st Century (A.D.) as Rome conquered much of Britain and Western Europe.

At its peak, the Roman Empire stretched from Britain in the West, throughout most of Western, Central, and Eastern Europe, and into Asia Minor. For a brief time, the era of “Pax Romana”, a time of peace and consolidation reigned. Civilian emperors were the rule, and the culture flourished with a great deal of liberty enjoyed by the average Roman Citizen. However within 200 years the Roman Empire was in a state of steady decay, attacked by Germans, Goths, and Persians. The decline was temporarily halted by third century Emperor Diocletian.

In the 4th Century (A.D.) the Roman Empire was split between East and West. The Great Emperor Constantine again managed to temporarily arrest the decay of the Empire, but within a hundred years after his death the Persians captured Mesopotamia, Vandals infiltrated Gaul and Spain, and the Goths even sacked Rome itself. Most historians date the end of the Western Roman Empire to 476 (A.D.) when Emperor Romulus Augustus was deposed. However the Eastern Roman Empire (The Byzantine Empire) survived until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 A.D.

In the ancient world valuables such as coins and jewelry were commonly buried for safekeeping, and inevitably the owners would succumb to one of the many perils of the ancient world. Oftentimes the survivors of these individuals did not know where the valuables had been buried, and today, thousands of years later (occasionally massive) caches of coins and rings are still commonly uncovered throughout Europe and Asia Minor.

Throughout history these treasures have been inadvertently discovered by farmers in their fields, uncovered by erosion, and the target of unsystematic searches by treasure seekers. With the introduction of metal detectors and other modern technologies to Eastern Europe in the past three or four decades, an amazing number of new finds are seeing the light of day thousands of years after they were originally hidden by their past owners. And with the liberalization of post-Soviet Eastern Europe, new sources have opened eager to share in these ancient treasures.

Domestic shipping (insured first class mail) is included in the price shown. Domestic shipping also includes USPS Delivery Confirmation (you might be able to update the status of your shipment on-line at the USPS Web Site). Canadian shipments are an extra $8.99 for Insured Air Mail; International shipments are an extra $8.99 for Air Mail (and generally are NOT tracked; trackable shipments are EXTRA). ADDITIONAL PURCHASES do receive a VERY LARGE discount, typically about $5 per item so as to reward you for the economies of combined shipping/insurance costs. Your purchase will ordinarily be shipped within 48 hours of payment. We package as well as anyone in the business, with lots of protective padding and containers.

We do NOT recommend uninsured shipments, and expressly disclaim any responsibility for the loss of an uninsured shipment. Unfortunately the contents of parcels are easily “lost” or misdelivered by postal employees – even in the USA. If you intend to pay via PayPal, please be aware that PayPal Protection Policies REQUIRE insured, trackable shipments, which is INCLUDED in our price. International tracking is at additional cost. We do offer U.S. Postal Service Priority Mail, Registered Mail, and Express Mail for both international and domestic shipments, as well United Parcel Service (UPS) and Federal Express (Fed-Ex). Please ask for a rate quotation. We will accept whatever payment method you are most comfortable with. If upon receipt of the item you are disappointed for any reason whatever, I offer a no questions asked return policy. Send it back, I will give you a complete refund of the purchase price (less our original shipping costs).

Most of the items I offer come from the collection of a family friend who was active in the field of Archaeology for over forty years. However many of the items also come from purchases I make in Eastern Europe, India, and from the Levant (Eastern Mediterranean/Near East) from various institutions and dealers. Though I have always had an interest in archaeology, my own academic background was in sociology and cultural anthropology. After my retirement however, I found myself drawn to archaeology as well. Aside from my own personal collection, I have made extensive and frequent additions of my own via purchases on (of course), as well as many purchases from both dealers and institutions throughout the world – but especially in the Near East and in Eastern Europe. I spend over half of my year out of the United States, and have spent much of my life either in India or Eastern Europe. In fact much of what we generate on Yahoo, Amazon and goes to support The Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg, as well as some other worthy institutions in Europe connected with Anthropology and Archaeology.

I acquire some small but interesting collections overseas from time-to-time, and have as well some duplicate items within my own collection which I occasionally decide to part with. Though I have a collection of ancient coins numbering in the tens of thousands, my primary interest is in ancient jewelry. My wife also is an active participant in the “business” of antique and ancient jewelry, and is from Russia. I would be happy to provide you with a certificate/guarantee of authenticity for any item you purchase from me. There is a $2 fee for mailing under separate cover. Whenever I am overseas I have made arrangements for purchases to be shipped out via domestic mail. If I am in the field, you may have to wait for a week or two for a COA to arrive via international air mail. But you can be sure your purchase will arrive properly packaged and promptly – even if I am absent. And when I am in a remote field location with merely a notebook computer, at times I am not able to access my email for a day or two, so be patient, I will always respond to every email. Please see our \"ADDITIONAL TERMS OF SALE.\"