CONSTANTINE I the GREAT 324AD Ancient Roman Coin Military Camp gate i50687

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CONSTANTINE I the GREAT 324AD Ancient Roman Coin Military Camp gate i50687:
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Item: i50687

Authentic AncientCoin of:

Constantine I \'The Great\'-Roman Emperor: 307-337 A.D. -
Bronze AE3 20mm (2.54 grams) Struck at the mint of Cyzicus 324-325 A.D.
Reference: RIC 24 (VII, Cyzicus)
CONSTANTINVSAVG - Laureate head right.
PROVIDENTIAEAVGG Exe: .SMKΓ. -Camp gate gate with two turrets and star above.

A military camp or bivouac is a semi-permanentfacility for the lodging of anarmy. Camps are erectedwhen a military force travels away from a major installation or fort duringtrainingoroperations,and often have the form of largecampsites.In the Romanera the military camp had highly stylized parameters and served an entirelegion.Archaeological investigations have revealed many details of theseRoman campsat sites such asVindolanda(England)and Raedykes(Scotland).

You are offerding on the exact item pictured,provided with a Certificate of Authenticity and Lifetime Guarantee ofAuthenticity.

TheLatinword castra , with itssingular castrum, was used by the ancient Romans to mean buildingsor plots of land reserved to or constructed for use as a military defensiveposition. The word appears in bothOscanandUmbrian(dialects ofItalic) as well as inLatin. In classical Latin the word castraalways means \"great legionary encampment\", both \"marching\", \"temporary\" ones andthe \"fortified permanent\" ones, while the diminutive form castellumwas used for the smaller forts, which were usually, but not always, occupied bythe auxiliary units and used as logistic bases for the legions, as explained byVegetius.[3]A generic term is praesidium (\"guard post or garrison\"). The termsstratopedon (\"army camp\") and phrourion (\"fort\")were used byGreek languageauthors, in order to designatethe Roman castra and the Roman castellum respectively. InEnglish, the terms \"Roman fortress\", \"Romanfort\" and \"Roman camp\" are commonly used for the castra. However thescholars\' convention always requires the use of the word \"camp\", \"marching camp\"and \"fortress\" as a translation of castra and the use of the word \"fort\"as a translation of castellum and this type of convention is usuallyfollowed and found in all the scholarly works.

Constantine the Great (Latin:Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus Augustus;27 February c. 272- 22 May 337), also known as Constantine I or SaintConstantine, wasRoman Emperorfrom 306 to 337. Well known forbeing the first Roman emperor tobe convertedtoChristianity, Constantine and co-EmperorLiciniusissued theEdict of Milanin 313, which proclaimedtolerance of all religionsthroughout theempire.

Constantine defeated the emperorsMaxentiusandLiciniusduring civil wars. He also foughtsuccessfully against theFranks,Alamanni,Visigoths, andSarmatiansduring his reign - even resettlingparts of Daciawhich had been abandoned during theprevious century. Constantine built a new imperial residence atByzantium, naming itNew Rome. However, in Constantine\'s honor,people called itConstantinople, which would later be thecapital of what is now known as theByzantine Empirefor over one thousand years.Because of this, he is thought of as the founder of the Byzantine Empire.

Flavius Valerius Constantinus, as he was originally named, was born in thecity of Naissus,Dardaniaprovince ofMoesia, in present-dayNiš,Serbia, on 27 February of an uncertain year,probably near 272.His father wasFlavius Constantius, a native ofDardaniaprovince of Moesia (laterDacia Ripensis). Constantius was a tolerant andpolitically skilled man. Constantine probably spent little time with his father.Constantius was an officer in the Roman army, part of the EmperorAurelian\'s imperial bodyguard. Constantiusadvanced through the ranks, earning thegovernorshipofDalmatiafrom EmperorDiocletian, another of Aurelian\'s companionsfromIllyricum, in 284 or 285.Constantine\'s motherwasHelena, aBithynianwoman of low social standing.It isuncertain whether she was legally married to Constantius or merely hisconcubine.

Helena gave birth to the future emperorConstantine Ion 27 February of an uncertainyear soon after 270 (probably around 272). At the time, she was inNaissus(Niš,Serbia). In order to obtain a wife moreconsonant with his rising status, Constantius divorced Helena some time before289, when he marriedTheodora, Maximian\'s daughter.(The narrativesources date the marriage to 293, but theLatin panegyricof 289 refers to the couple asalready married). Helena and her son were dispatched to the court ofDiocletianat Nicomedia, where Constantine grewto be a member of the inner circle. Helena never remarried and lived for a timein obscurity, though close to her only son, who had a deep regard and affectionfor her.

She received the title of Augusta in 325 and died in 330 with her sonat her side. She was buried in theMausoleum of Helena, outsideRome on theVia Labicana. Hersarcophagusis on display in thePio-Clementine Vatican Museum, although theconnection is often questioned, next to her is the sarcophagus of hergranddaughter Saint Constantina (Saint Constance). The elaborate reliefs containhunting scenes. During her life, she gave many presents to the poor, releasedprisoners and mingled with the ordinary worshippers in modest attire.

Constantine received a formal education at Diocletian\'s court, where helearned Latin literature, Greek, and philosophy.

On 1 May 305, Diocletian, as a result of a debilitating sickness taken in thewinter of 304-5, announced his resignation. In a parallel ceremony in Milan,Maximian did the same. Lactantius states that Galerius manipulated the weakenedDiocletian into resigning, and forced him to accept Galerius\' allies in theimperial succession. According to Lactantius, the crowd listening toDiocletian\'s resignation speech believed, until the very last moment, thatDiocletian would choose Constantine andMaxentius(Maximian\'s son) as his successors.It was not to be: Constantius and Galerius were promoted to Augusti, whileSeverusandMaximinwere appointed their Caesarsrespectively. Constantine and Maxentius were ignored.

Constantine recognized the implicit danger in remaining at Galerius\' court,where he was held as a virtual hostage. His career depended on being rescued byhis father in the west. Constantius was quick to intervene. In the late springor early summer of 305, Constantius requested leave for his son, to help himcampaign in Britain. After a long evening of drinking, Galerius granted therequest. Constantine\'s later propaganda describes how he fled the court in thenight, before Galerius could change his mind. He rode frompost-houseto post-house at high speed,hamstringingevery horse in his wake.By thetime Galerius awoke the following morning, Constantine had fled too far to becaught. Constantine joined his father inGaul, at Bononia (Boulogne)before the summer of 305.

From Bononia they crossed theChannelto Britain and made their way toEboracum(York),capital of the province ofBritannia Secundaand home to a large militarybase. Constantine was able to spend a year in northern Britain at his father\'sside, campaigning against thePictsbeyondHadrian\'s Wallin the summer and autumn.Constantius\'s campaign, like that ofSeptimius Severusbefore it, probably advancedfar into the north without achieving great success. Constantius had becomeseverely sick over the course of his reign, and died on 25 July 306 inEboracum(York).Before dying, he declared his support for raising Constantine to the rank offull Augustus. TheAlamannickingChrocus, a barbarian taken into service underConstantius, then proclaimed Constantine as Augustus. The troops loyal toConstantius\' memory followed him in acclamation. Gaul and Britain quicklyaccepted his rule; Iberia, which had been in his father\'s domain for less than ayear, rejected it.

Constantine sent Galerius an official notice of Constantius\'s death and hisown acclamation. Along with the notice, he included a portrait of himself in therobes of an Augustus. The portrait was wreathed inbay. He requested recognition as heir to hisfather\'s throne, and passed off responsibility for his unlawful ascension on hisarmy, claiming they had \"forced it upon him\".Galerius was put into a fury by themessage; he almost set the portrait on fire. His advisers calmed him, and arguedthat outright denial of Constantine\'s claims would mean certain war.Galerius wascompelled to compromise: he granted Constantine the title \"Caesar\" rather than\"Augustus\" (the latter office went to Severus instead). Wishing to make it clearthat he alone gave Constantine legitimacy, Galerius personally sent Constantinethe emperor\'s traditionalpurple robes. Constantine accepted thedecision. Constantine\'s share of the Empire consisted of Britain, Gaul, andSpain.

Because Constantine was still largely untried and had a hint of illegitimacyabout him, he relied on his father\'s reputation in his early propaganda: theearliest panegyrics to Constantine give as much coverage to his father\'s deedsas to those of Constantine himself.Constantine\'s military skill and building projects soon gavethe panegyrist the opportunity to comment favorably on the similarities betweenfather and son, and Eusebius remarked that Constantine was a \"renewal, as itwere, in his own person, of his father\'s life and reign\". Constantinian coinage,sculpture and oratory also shows a new tendency for disdain towards the\"barbarians\" beyond the frontiers. After Constantine\'s victory over theAlemanni, he minted a coin issue depicting weeping and begging Alemannictribesmen-\"The Alemanni conquered\"-beneath the phrase \"Romans\' rejoicing\".Therewas little sympathy for these enemies. As his panegyrist declared: \"It is astupid clemency that spares the conquered foe.\"

In 310, a dispossessed and power-hungry Maximian rebelled against Constantinewhile Constantine was away campaigning against the Franks. Maximian had beensent south to Arles with a contingent of Constantine\'s army, in preparation forany attacks by Maxentius in southern Gaul. He announced that Constantine wasdead, and took up the imperial purple. In spite of a large donative pledge toany who would support him as emperor, most of Constantine\'s army remained loyalto their emperor, and Maximian was soon compelled to leave. Constantine soonheard of the rebellion, abandoned his campaign against the Franks, and marchedhis army up the Rhine. At Cabillunum (Chalon-sur-Saône),he moved his troops onto waiting boats to row down the slow waters of theSaôneto the quicker waters of theRhone. He disembarked atLugdunum(Lyon).Maximianfled to Massilia (Marseille),a town better able to withstand a long siege than Arles. It made littledifference, however, as loyal citizens opened the rear gates to Constantine.Maximian was captured and reproved for his crimes. Constantine granted someclemency, but strongly encouraged his suicide. In July 310, Maximian hangedhimself.

The death of Maximian required a shift in Constantine\'s public image. Hecould no longer rely on his connection to the elder emperor Maximian, and neededa new source of legitimacy.In a speech delivered in Gaul on 25 July 310, theanonymous orator reveals a previously unknown dynastic connection toClaudius II, a third-century emperor famed fordefeating the Goths and restoring order to the empire. Breaking away fromtetrarchic models, the speech emphasizes Constantine\'s ancestral prerogative torule, rather than principles of imperial equality. The new ideology expressed inthe speech made Galerius and Maximian irrelevant to Constantine\'s right to rule.Indeed, the orator emphasizes ancestry to the exclusion of all other factors:\"No chance agreement of men, nor some unexpected consequence of favor, made youemperor,\" the orator declares to Constantine.

A gold multiple of \"Unconquered Constantine\" withSolInvictus, struck in 313. The use of Sol\'s image appealed to both theeducated citizens of Gaul, who would recognize
in it Apollo\'s patronage ofAugustusand the arts; and to Christians, who found solar monotheism lessobjectionable than the traditional pagan pantheon.

The oration also moves away from the religious ideology of the Tetrarchy,with its focus on twin dynasties ofJupiterandHercules. Instead, the orator proclaims thatConstantine experienced a divine vision ofApolloandVictorygranting himlaurel wreathsof health and a long reign. Inthe likeness of Apollo Constantine recognized himself as the saving figure towhom would be granted \"rule of the whole world\", as the poet Virgil had onceforetold. The oration\'s religious shift is paralleled by a similar shift inConstantine\'s coinage. In his early reign, the coinage of Constantine advertisedMarsas his patron. From 310 on, Mars wasreplaced bySol Invictus, a god conventionally identifiedwith Apollo.

By the middle of 310, Galerius had become too ill to involve himself inimperial politics. His final act survives: a letter to the provincials posted inNicomedia on 30 April 311, proclaiming an end to the persecutions, and theresumption of religious toleration. He died soon after the edict\'s proclamation,destroying what little remained of the tetrarchy. Maximin mobilized againstLicinius, and seized Asia Minor. A hasty peace was signed on a boat in themiddle of the Bosphorus. While Constantine toured Britain and Gaul, Maxentiusprepared for war.He fortified northern Italy, and strengthened his support inthe Christian community by allowing it to elect a advisers and generals cautioned against preemptive attack onMaxentius; even his soothsayers recommended against it, stating that thesacrifices had produced unfavorable omens. Constantine, with a spirit that lefta deep impression on his followers, inspiring some to believe that he had someform of supernatural guidance, ignored all these cautions. Early in the springof 312,Constantine crossed theCottian Alpswith a quarter of his army, aforce numbering about 40,000.The first town his army encountered was Segusium (Susa,Italy), a heavily fortified town that shut itsgates to him. Constantine ordered his men to set fire to its gates and scale itswalls. He took the town quickly. Constantine ordered his troops not to loot thetown, and advanced with them into northern Italy.

At the approach to the west of the important city of Augusta Taurinorum (Turin,Italy), Constantine met a large force of heavily armed Maxentian cavalry. In theensuingbattleConstantine\'s army encircled Maxentius\'cavalry, flanked them with his own cavalry, and dismounted them with blows fromhis soldiers\' iron-tipped clubs. Constantine\'s armies emerged victorious. Turinrefused to give refuge to Maxentius\' retreating forces, opening its gates toConstantine instead.Other cities of the north Italian plain sent Constantineembassies of congratulation for his victory. He moved on to Milan, where he wasmet with open gates and jubilant rejoicing. Constantine rested his army in Milanuntil mid-summer 312, when he moved on toBrixia(Brescia).

Brescia\'s army was easily dispersed, and Constantine quickly advanced toVerona, where a large Maxentian force wascamped. Ruricius Pompeianus, general of the Veronese forces and Maxentius\'praetorian prefect, was in a strong defensive position, since the town wassurrounded on three sides by theAdige. Constantine sent a small force north ofthe town in an attempt to cross the river unnoticed. Ruricius sent a largedetachment to counter Constantine\'s expeditionary force, but was defeated.Constantine\'s forces successfully surrounded the town and laid siege. Ruriciusgave Constantine the slip and returned with a larger force to opposeConstantine. Constantine refused to let up on the siege, and sent only a smallforce to oppose him. In the desperately foughtencounterthat followed, Ruricius was killedand his army destroyed.Verona surrendered soon afterwards, followed byAquileia, Mutina (Modena),andRavenna. The road to Rome was now wide open toConstantine.

Maxentius prepared for the same type of war he had waged against Severus andGalerius: he sat in Rome and prepared for a siege. He still controlled Rome\'spraetorian guards, was well-stocked with African grain, and was surrounded onall sides by the seemingly impregnableAurelian Walls. He ordered all bridges acrossthe Tibercut, reportedly on the counsel of thegods, and left the rest of central Italy undefended; Constantine secured thatregion\'s support without challenge. Constantine progressed slowly along the Via Flaminia, allowing the weakness ofMaxentius to draw his regime further into turmoil. Maxentius\' support continuedto weaken: at chariot races on 27 October, the crowd openly taunted Maxentius,shouting that Constantine was invincible. Maxentius, no longer certain that hewould emerge from a siege victorious, built a temporary boat bridge across theTiber in preparation for a field battle against Constantine. On 28 October 312,the sixth anniversary of his reign, he approached the keepers of theSibylline Booksfor guidance. The keepersprophesied that, on that very day, \"the enemy of the Romans\" would die.Maxentius advanced north to meet Constantine in battle.

Maxentius organized his forces-still twice the size of Constantine\'s-in longlines facing the battle plain, with their backs to the river. Constantine\'s armyarrived at the field bearing unfamiliar symbols on either its standards or itssoldiers\' shields. Constantine was visited by a dream the night before thebattle, wherein he was advised \"to mark the heavenly sign of God on the shieldsof his soldiers...by means of a slanted letter X with the top of its head bentround, he marked Christ on their shields.\" Eusebius describes the sign asChi(Χ) traversed byRho(Ρ): ☧, a symbol representing the first twoletters of the Greek spelling of the word Christos or Christ.

Constantine deployed his own forces along the whole length of Maxentius\'line. He ordered his cavalry to charge, and they broke Maxentius\' cavalry. Hethen sent his infantry against Maxentius\' infantry, pushing many into the Tiberwhere they were slaughtered and drowned. The battle was brief: Maxentius\' troopswere broken before the first charge. Maxentius\' horse guards and praetoriansinitially held their position, but broke under the force of a Constantiniancavalry charge; they also broke ranks and fled to the river. Maxentius rode withthem, and attempted to cross the bridge of boats, but he was pushed by the massof his fleeing soldiers into the Tiber, and drowned.

In Rome

Constantine entered Rome on 29 October.He staged a grand adventus in the city, and was met withpopular jubilation. Maxentius\' body was fished out of the Tiber and decapitated.His head was paraded through the streets for all to see. Unlike hispredecessors, Constantine neglected to make the trip to theCapitoline Hilland perform customarysacrifices at theTemple of Jupiter. He did, however, choose tohonor theSenatorialCuriawith a visit, where he promised torestore its ancestral privileges and give it a secure role in his reformedgovernment: there would be no revenge against Maxentius\' supporters.In response,the Senate decreed him \"title of the first name\", which meant his name would belisted first in all official documents, and acclaimed him as \"the greatestAugustus\". He issued decrees returning property lost under Maxentius, recallingpolitical exiles, and releasing Maxentius\' imprisoned opponents.

In the following years, Constantine gradually consolidated his militarysuperiority over his rivals in the crumbling Tetrarchy. In 313, he metLiciniusinMilanto secure their alliance by the marriageof Licinius and Constantine\'s half-sisterConstantia. During this meeting, the emperorsagreed on the so-calledEdict of Milan,officially granting fulltolerance to Christianity and all religions in the Empire.The document hadspecial benefits for Christians, legalizing their religion and granting themrestoration for all property seized during Diocletian\'s persecution.

In the year 320,Liciniusreneged on the religious freedompromised by theEdict of Milanin 313 and began to oppressChristians anew, generally without bloodshed, but resorting to confiscations andsacking of Christian office-holders.That became a challenge to Constantine inthe West, climaxing in the great civil war of 324. Licinius, aided byGothmercenaries, represented the past and theancient Paganfaiths. Constantine and hisFranksmarched under the standard of the labarum, and both sides saw the battle inreligious terms. Outnumbered, but fired by their zeal, Constantine\'s armyemerged victorious in theBattle of Adrianople. Licinius fled across theBosphorus and appointedMartius Martinianus, the commander of hisbodyguard, as Caesar, but Constantine next won theBattle of the Hellespont, and finally theBattle of Chrysopolison 18 September324.Licinius and Martinianus surrendered to Constantine at Nicomedia on thepromise their lives would be spared: they were sent to live as private citizensin Thessalonica and Cappadocia respectively, but in 325 Constantine accusedLicinius of plotting against him and had them both arrested and hanged;Licinius\'s son (the son of Constantine\'s half-sister) was also killed. ThusConstantine became the sole emperor of the Roman Empire.

Foundation ofConstantinople

Licinius\' defeat came to represent the defeat of a rival center of Pagan andGreek-speaking political activity in the East, as opposed to the Christian andLatin-speaking Rome, and it was proposed that a new Eastern capital shouldrepresent the integration of the East into the Roman Empire as a whole, as acenter of learning, prosperity, and cultural preservation for the whole of theEastern Roman Empire. Among the variouslocations proposed for this alternative capital, Constantine appears to havetoyed earlier withSerdica(present-daySofia), as he was reported saying that \"Serdicais my Rome\". SirmiumandThessalonicawere also considered. Eventually,however, Constantine decided to work on the Greek city ofByzantium, which offered the advantage ofhaving already been extensively rebuilt on Roman patterns of urbanism, duringthe preceding century, bySeptimius SeverusandCaracalla, who had already acknowledged itsstrategic importance. The city was then renamed Constantinopolis(\"Constantine\'s City\" orConstantinoplein English), and issued specialcommemorative coins in 330 to honor the event. The new city was protected by therelics of theTrue Cross, theRod of Mosesand other holyrelics, though a cameo now at theHermitage Museumalso represented Constantinecrowned by the tycheof the new city. The figures of old godswere either replaced or assimilated into a framework ofChristian symbolism. Constantine built the newChurch of the Holy Apostleson the site of atemple to Aphrodite. Generations later there was thestory that adivine visionled Constantine to this spot, andan angelno one else could see, led him on acircuit of the new walls. The capital would often be compared to the \'old\' Romeas Nova Roma Constantinopolitana, the \"New Rome of Constantinople\".

Constantine the Great, mosaic inHagia Sophia, c. 1000

Religious policy

Constantine is perhaps best known for being the first \"Christian\" Romanemperor. Scholars debate whether Constantine adopted his motherSt. Helena\'sChristianity in his youth, or whether he adopted it gradually over the course ofhis life.
Constantine was over 40 when he finally declared himself a Christian, writing toChristians to make clear that he believed he owed his successes to theprotection of the Christian High God alone.Throughout his rule, Constantinesupported the Church financially, built basilicas, granted privileges to clergy(e.g. exemption from certain taxes), promoted Christians to high office, andreturned property confiscated during the Diocletianic persecution.His mostfamous building projects include theChurch of the Holy Sepulchre, andOld Saint Peter\'s Basilica.

However, Constantine certainly did not patronize Christianity alone. Aftergaining victory in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (312), a triumphal arch-theArch of Constantine-was built (315) tocelebrate his triumph. The arch is most notably decorated with images of thegoddessVictoriaand, at the time of its dedication,sacrifices to gods likeApollo,Diana, andHerculeswere made. Most notably absent fromthe Arch are any depictions whatsoever regarding Christian symbolism.

Later in 321, Constantine instructed that Christians and non-Christiansshould be united in observing the venerable day of the sun, referencingthe sun-worshipthatAurelianhad established as an official cult.Furthermore, and long after his oft alleged \"conversion\" to Christianity,Constantine\'s coinage continued to carry the symbols of the sun. Even after thepagan gods had disappeared from the coinage, Christian symbols appeared only asConstantine\'s personal attributes: thechi rhobetween his hands or on hislabarum, but never on the coin itself. Evenwhen Constantine dedicated the new capital of Constantinople, which became theseat of Byzantine Christianity for a millennium, he did so wearing theApolloniansun-rayedDiadem; no Christian symbols were present atthis dedication.

Constantine made new laws regarding theJews. They were forofferden to own Christian slaves or tocircumcisetheir slaves.

Administrative reforms

Beginning in the mid-3rd century the emperors began to favor members of theequestrian orderover senators, who had had amonopoly on the most important offices of state. Senators were stripped of thecommand of legions and most provincial governorships (as it was felt that theylacked the specialized military upbringing needed in an age of acute defenseneeds), such posts being given to equestrians by Diocletian and hiscolleagues-following a practice enforced piecemeal by their predecessors. Theemperors however, still needed the talents and the help of the very rich, whowere relied on to maintain social order and cohesion by means of a web ofpowerful influence and contacts at all levels. Exclusion of the old senatorialaristocracy threatened this arrangement.

In 326, Constantine reversed this pro-equestrian trend, raising manyadministrative positions to senatorial rank and thus opening these offices tothe old aristocracy, and at the same time elevating the rank of already existingequestrians office-holders to senator, eventually wiping out the equestrianorder-at least as a bureaucratic rank-in the process. One could become asenator, either by being electedpraetoror (in most cases) by fulfilling afunction of senatorial rank: from then on, holding of actual power and socialstatus were melded together into a joint imperial hierarchy. At the same time,Constantine gained with this the support of the old nobility, as the Senate wasallowed itself to elect praetors andquaestors, in place of the usual practice ofthe emperors directly creating new magistrates (adlectio).

The Senate as a body remained devoid of any significant power; nevertheless,the senators, who had been marginalized as potential holders of imperialfunctions during the 3rd century, could now dispute such positions alongsidemore upstart bureaucrats. Some modern historians see in those administrativereforms an attempt by Constantine at reintegrating the senatorial order into theimperial administrative elite to counter the possibility of alienating pagansenators from a Christianized imperial rule.

Constantine\'s reforms had to do only with the civilian administration: themilitary chiefs, who since theCrisis of the Third Centuryhad risen from theranks, remained outside the senate, in which they were included only byConstantine\'s children.

Monetary reforms

After therunaway inflation of the third century,associated with the production offiat moneyto pay for public expenses,Diocletian had tried unsuccessfully to reestablish trustworthy minting of silverandbilloncoins. The failure of the variousDiocletianic attempts at the restoration of a functioning silver coin resided inthe fact that the silver currency was overvalued in terms of its actual metalcontent, and therefore could only circulate at much discounted rates. Minting ofthe Diocletianic \"pure\" silver argenteus ceased, therefore, soon after305, while the billon currency continued to be used until the 360s. From theearly 300s on, Constantine forsook any attempts at restoring the silvercurrency, preferring instead to concentrate on minting large quantities of goodstandard gold pieces-thesolidus, 72 of which made a pound of gold. New(and highly debased) silver pieces would continue to be issued duringConstantine\'s later reign and after his death, in a continuous process ofretariffing, until this billon minting eventually ceased, de jure, in367, with the silver piece being de facto continued by variousdenominations of bronze coins, the most important being the centenionalis. Later emperors likeJulian the Apostatetried to present themselvesas advocates of the humiles by insisting on trustworthy mintings of thebronze currency.

Constantine\'s monetary policy were closely associated with his religiousones, in that increased minting was associated with measures ofconfiscation-taken since 331 and closed in 336-of all gold, silver and bronzestatues from pagan temples, who were declared as imperial property and, as such,as monetary assets. Two imperial commissioners for each province had the task ofgetting hold of the statues and having them melded for immediate minting-withthe exception of a number of bronze statues who were used as public monumentsfor the beautification of the new capital in Constantinople.

Later campaigns

Constantine considered Constantinople as his capital and permanent residence.He lived there for a good portion of his later life. He rebuilt Trajan\'s bridgeacross the Danube, in hopes of reconqueringDacia, a province that had been abandoned underAurelian. In the late winter of 332, Constantine campaigned with theSarmatiansagainst theGoths. The weather and lack of food cost theGoths dearly: reportedly, nearly one hundred thousand died before they submittedto Rome. In 334, after Sarmatian commoners had overthrown their leaders,Constantine led a campaign against the tribe. He won a victory in the war andextended his control over the region, as remains of camps and fortifications inthe region indicate.Constantine resettled some Sarmatian exiles as farmers inIllyrian and Roman districts, and conscripted the rest into the army.Constantine took the title Dacicus maximus in 336.

Sickness and death

Constantine had known death would soon come. Within the Church of the HolyApostles, Constantine had secretly prepared a final resting-place for himself.Itcame sooner than he had expected. Soon after the Feast of Easter 337,Constantine fell seriously ill. He left Constantinople for the hot baths nearhis mother\'s city of Helenopolis (Altinova), on the southern shores of the Gulfof İzmit. There, in a church his mother built in honor of Lucian the Apostle, heprayed, and there he realized that he was dying. Seeking purification, he becamea catechumen, and attempted a return toConstantinople, making it only as far as a suburb of Nicomedia. He summoned thebishops, and told them of his hope to be baptized in theRiver Jordan, where Christ was written to havebeen baptized. He requested the baptism right away. The bishops, Eusebiusrecords, \"performed the sacred ceremonies according to custom\". He chose theArianizing bishopEusebius of Nicomedia, bishop of thecitywhere he lay dying, as his baptizer. Inpostponing his baptism, he followed one custom at the time which postponedbaptism until after infancy. Constantine died soon after at a suburban villacalled Achyron, on the last day of the fifty-day festival of Pentecost directlyfollowing Pascha (or Easter), on 22 May 337.[246]

Following his death, his body was transferred to Constantinople and buried intheChurch of the Holy Apostlesthere. He wassucceeded by his three sons born of Fausta,Constantine II,Constantius IIandConstans. A number of relatives were killed byfollowers of Constantius, notably Constantine\'s nephewsDalmatius(who held the rank of Caesar) andHannibalianus, presumably to eliminate possiblecontenders to an already complicated succession. He also had two daughters,ConstantinaandHelena, wife ofEmperor Julian.

Legacy

The Byzantine Empire considered Constantine its founder and theHoly Roman Empirereckoned him among thevenerable figures of its tradition. In the later Byzantine state, it had becomea great honor for an emperor to be hailed as a \"new Constantine\". Ten emperors,including the last emperor of Byzantium, carried the name. Most EasternChristian churches consider Constantine a saint (Άγιος Κωνσταντίνος, SaintConstantine). In the Byzantine Church he was called isapostolos -anequal of the Apostles.Niš airportis named Constantine the Great inhonor of his birth in Naissus.

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Compared to other certification companies, the certificate ofauthenticity is a $25-50 value. So buy a coin today and own a pieceof history, guaranteed.

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I offer a 30 day unconditional money back guarantee. I standbehind my coins and would be willing to exchange your order foreither store credit towards other coins, or refund, minus shippingexpenses, within 30 days from the receipt of your order. My goal isto have the returning customers for a lifetime, and I am so sure inmy coins, their authenticity, numismatic value and beauty, I canoffer such a guarantee.

Is there a number I can call you with questions about myorder?

You can contact me directly via ask seller a question and request mytelephone number, or go to myAbout Me Page to get my contact information only in regards toitems purchased on .

When should I leave response?
Once you receive yourorder, please leave a positive. Please don\'t leave anynegative responses, as it happens many times that people rush to leaveresponse before letting sufficient time for the order to arrive. Also, ifyou sent an email, make sure to check for my reply in your messages beforeclaiming that you didn\'t receive a response. The matter of fact is that anyissues can be resolved, as reputation is most important to me. My goal is toprovide superior products and quality of service.