SYRACUSE in SICILY under PYRRHOS 278BC Hercules Athena Ancient Greek Coin i57269

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SYRACUSE in SICILY under PYRRHOS 278BC Hercules Athena Ancient Greek Coin i57269:
$562.50

Item: i57269

Authentic Ancient Coin of:

Greek city ofSyracuse inSicily
under the Rule of Pyrrhos: 278-276 B.C.
Bronze 22mm (9.72 grams) Struck 278-276 B.C.
Reference: HGC 2, 1451; CNS II, no. 178
Head of young Hercules left, in lion\'s skin headdress.
ΣYPAKOΣIΩNAthena Promachos advancing right, brandishing spear and holding shield.

You are offerding on the exact item pictured, provided with a Certificate of Authenticity and Lifetime Guarantee of Authenticity.

Athena or Athene (Latin:Minerva), also referred to as Pallas Athena, is the goddess of war, civilization, wisdom, strength, strategy, crafts, justice and skill inGreek mythology.Minerva, Athena\'s Romanincarnation, embodies similar attributes. Athena is also a shrewd companion ofheroes and thegoddess of heroic endeavour. She is thevirgin patron of Athens. The Athenians built theParthenon on the Acropolis of her namesake city, Athens, in her honour (Athena Parthenos). Athena\'s cult as the patron of Athens seems to have existed from the earliest times and was so persistent that archaic myths about her were recast to adapt to cultural changes. In her role as a protector of the city (polis), many people throughout the Greek world worshiped Athena as Athena Polias (\"Athena of the city\").Athens and Athena bear etymologically connected names.

Pyrrhus or Pyrrhos (Greek:Πύρρος, Pyrros; 319/318 BC—272 BC) was a Greek general and statesman of theHellenistic era. He was king of the Greek tribe ofMolossians, of the royal Aeacid house (from ca. 297 BC), and later he became King ofEpirus (306-302, 297-272 BC) andMacedon (288-284, 273-272 BC). He was one of the strongest opponents of earlyRome. Some of his battles, though successful, cost him heavy losses, from which the term \"Pyrrhic victory\" was coined. He is the subject of one ofPlutarch\'sParallel Lives (Greek: Βίοι Παράλληλοι).

Early life

Tribes of Epirus in antiquity.

Pyrrhus was the son ofAeacides andPhthia, a Thessalian woman, and a second cousin of Alexander the Great (via Alexander\'s mother,Olympias). Pyrrhus was only two years old when his father was dethroned, in 317 BC, his family taking refuge withGlaukias, king of theTaulantians, one of the largestIllyrian tribes. Pyrrhus was raised byBeroea, Glaukias\'s wife and aMolossian of theAeacidae dynasty.

Glaukias restored Pyrrhus to the throne in 306 BC until the latter was banished again, four years later, by his enemy,Cassander. Thus, he went on to serve as an officer, in thewars of the Diadochi, under his brother-in-lawDemetrius Poliorcetes. In 298 BC, Pyrrhus was taken hostage to Alexandria, under the terms of a peace treaty made between Demetrius and Ptolemy I Soter. There, he married Ptolemy I\'s stepdaughter Antigone (daughter ofBerenice I of Egypt, Ptolemy\'s mistress, and a Macedonian noble) and restored his kingdom in Epirus in 297 BC with financial and military aid from Ptolemy I. Pyrrhus had his co-ruler Neoptolemus II, puppet of the now-deceased Seleucus, murdered. Through his marriage to Antigone, she bore him a son called Ptolemy and possibly a daughter called Olympias.

In 295 BC, Pyrrhus transferred the capital of his kingdom to Ambrakia (modernArta). Next, he went to war against his former ally and brother-in-law Demetrius, and, by 286 BC, he had taken control over the kingdom of Macedon. Pyrrhus was driven out of Macedon byLysimachus in 284 BC.

Struggle with Rome

Routes taken against Rome in the Pyrrhic War (280-275 BC).

In 281 BC, the Greek city ofTarentum, insouthern Italy, fell out with Rome and was faced with a Roman attack and certain defeat. Rome had already made itself into a major power, and was poised to subdue all the Greek cities inMagna Graecia. The Tarentines asked Pyrrhus to lead their war against the Romans.

Pyrrhus was encouraged to aid the Tarentines by the oracle ofDelphi. His goals were not, however, selfless. He recognized the possibility of carving out an empire for himself in Italy. He made an alliance withPtolemy Ceraunus, King of Macedon and his most powerful neighbor, and arrived in Italy in 280 BC.

He entered Italy with an army consisting of 3,000cavalry, 2,000 archers, 500slingers, 20,000infantry and 20 war elephants in a offer to subdue the Romans. The elephants had been loaned to him byPtolemy II, who had also promised 9,000 soldiers and a further 50 elephants to defend Epirus while Pyrrhus and his army were away.

Due to his superior cavalry and his elephants, he defeated the Romans, led byConsulPublius Valerius Laevinus, in theBattle of Heraclea in 280 BC. There are conflicting sources about casualties. Hieronymus of Cardia reports the Romans lost about 7,000 while Pyrrhus lost 3,000 soldiers, including many of his best. Dionysius gives a bloodier view of 15,000 Roman dead and 13,000 Greek. Several tribes including theLucani,Bruttii,Messapians, and the Greek cities ofCroton andLocri joined Pyrrhus. He then offered the Romans a peace treaty which was eventually rejected. Pyrrhus spent winter inCampania.

When Pyrrhus invaded Apulia (279 BC), the two armies met in theBattle of Asculum where Pyrrhus won a very costly victory. The consulPublius Decius Mus was the Roman commander, and his able force, though defeated, broke the back of Pyrrhus\' Hellenistic army, and guaranteed the security of the city itself. The battle foreshadowed later Roman victories over more numerous and well armed successor state military forces and inspired the term \"Pyrrhic victory\", meaning a victory which comes at a crippling cost. At the end, the Romans had lost 6,000 men and Pyrrhus 3,500 but, while battered, his army was still a force to be reckoned with.

Ruler of Sicily

In 278 BC, Pyrrhus received two offers simultaneously. The Greek cities inSicily asked him to come and drive out Carthage, which along with Rome was one of the two great powers of the WesternMediterranean. At the same time, theMacedonians, whose King Ceraunus had been killed by invading Gauls, asked Pyrrhus to ascend the throne of Macedon. Pyrrhus decided that Sicily offered him a greater opportunity, and transferred his army there.

Pyrrhus was proclaimed king of Sicily. He was already making plans for his son Helenus to inherit the kingdom of Sicily and his other son Alexander to be given Italy. In 277 BC, Pyrrhus capturedEryx, the strongest Carthaginian fortress in Sicily. This prompted the rest of the Carthaginian-controlled cities to defect to Pyrrhus.

In 276 BC, Pyrrhus negotiated with the Carthaginians. Although they were inclined to come to terms with Pyrrhus, supply him money and send him ships once friendly relations were established, he demanded that Carthage abandon all of Sicily and make the Libyan Sea a boundary between themselves and the Greeks. The Greek cities of Sicily opposed making peace with Carthage because the Carthaginians still controlled the powerful fortress ofLilybaeum, on the western end of the island. Pyrrhus eventually gave in to their proposals and broke off the peace negotiations. Pyrrhus\' army then began besieging Lilybaeum. For two months he launched unsuccessful assaults on the city, until finally he realised he could not mount an effective siege without blockading it from the sea as well. Pyrrhus then requested manpower and money from the Sicilians in order to construct a powerful fleet. When the Sicilians became unhappy about these contributions he had to resort to compulsory contributions and force to keep them in line. These measures culminated in him proclaiming a military dictatorship of Sicily and installing military garrisons in Sicilian cities.

These actions were deeply unpopular and soon Sicilian opinion became inflamed against him. Pyrrhus had so alienated the Sicilian Greeks that they were willing to make common cause with the Carthaginians. The Carthaginians took heart from this and sent another army against him. This army was promptly defeated. In spite of this victory Sicily continued to grow increasingly hostile to Pyrrhus, who began to consider abandoning Sicily. At this point Samnite and Tarentine envoys reached Pyrrhus and informed him that of all the Greek cities in Italy only Tarentum had not been conquered by Rome. Pyrrhus made his decision and departed from Sicily. As his ship left the island, he turned and said to his companions: \"What a wrestling ground we are leaving, my friends, for the Carthaginians and the Romans.\"

Retreat from Italy

While Pyrrhus had been campaigning against the Carthaginians, the Romans rebuilt their army by calling up thousands of freshrecruits. When Pyrrhus returned from Sicily, he found himself vastly outnumbered against a superior Roman army. After the inconclusiveBattle of Beneventum in 275 BC, Pyrrhus decided to end his campaign in Italy and return to Epirus which resulted in the loss of all his Italian holdings. Before leaving Italy Pyrrhus sent requests for military and financial assistance to Greece and Macedon, as well as to the Hellenic empires of the Ptolemaic and Seleucid dynasties. These appeals were all in vain.

Last wars and death

Though his western campaign had taken a heavy toll on his army as well as his treasury, Pyrrhus went to war yet again. Attacking KingAntigonus II Gonatas, he won an easy victory and seized the Macedonian throne.

In 272 BC,Cleonymus, a Spartan of royal blood who was hated among fellowSpartans, asked Pyrrhus to attack Sparta and place him in power. Pyrrhus agreed to the plan intending to win control of thePeloponnese for himself but unexpected strong resistance thwarted his assault on Sparta. He was immediately offered an opportunity to intervene in a civic dispute in Argos. Entering the city with his army by stealth, he found himself caught in a confused battle in the narrow city streets. During the confusion an old Argead woman watching from a rooftop threw a roofing tile which stunned him, allowing an Argive soldier to behead him.

The same year, upon hearing the news of Pyrrhus\' death, the Tarentinians surrendered to Rome.

Legacy

While he was a mercurial and often restless leader, and not always a wise king, he was considered one of the greatest military commanders of his time.Plutarch records that Hannibal ranked Pyrrhus as the greatest commander the world had ever seen, thoughAppian gives a different version of the story, in which Hannibal placed him second after Alexander the Great.

Pyrrhus was also known to be very benevolent. As a general, Pyrrhus\' greatest political weaknesses were his failures to maintain focus and to maintain a strong treasury at home (many of his soldiers were costly mercenaries).

His name is famous for the term \"Pyrrhic victory\" which refers to an exchange at theBattle of Asculum. In response to congratulations for winning a costly victory over the Romans, he is reported to have said: \"One more such victory will undo me!\" (Greek: Ἂν ἔτι μίαν μάχην νικήσωμεν, ἀπολώλαμεν)

Pyrrhus and his campaign in Italy was effectively the only chance for Greece to check the advance of Rome towards domination of the Mediterranean world. Rather than banding together, the various Hellenic powers continued to fight among themselves, sapping the financial and military strength of Greece and to a lesser extent, Macedon and the greater Hellenic world. By197 BC, Macedonia and the southern Greek city-states were under the control of Rome and the age of Greece as a major power was well and truly over. In188 BC, the Seleucid Empire was forced to cede most ofAsia Minor to Rome and Egypt was left as the last vestige ofAlexander\'s Empire. Total Roman domination over Greece was marked by thedestruction of Corinth in 146 BC; Greece would then form an integral part of the Roman world leading into theByzantine ages.

Pyrrhus wrote Memoirs and several books on the art of war. These have since been lost, although, according to Plutarch, Hannibal was influenced by them, and they received praise from Cicero.

Syracuse is a historiccity insouthern Italy, thecapital of theprovince of Syracuse. The city is famous for its rich Greek and association toArchimedes, playing an important role in ancient times as one of the top powers of theMediterranean world; it is over 2,700 years old. Syracuse is located in the south-east corner of the island ofSicily, right by the Gulf of Syracuse next to theIonian Sea.

The city was founded byAncient Greek Corinthians and became a very powerfulcity-state. Syracuse was allied withSparta andCorinth, exerting influence over the entire Magna Grecia area of which it was the most important city. Once described by Cicero as \"the greatest Greek city and the most beautiful of them all\", it later became part of theRoman Republic andByzantine Empire. After thisPalermo overtook it in importance, as the capital of theKingdom of Sicily. Eventually the kingdom would be united with theKingdom of Naples to form theTwo Sicilies until theItalian unification of 1860.

In the modern day, the city is listed byUNESCO as aWorld Heritage Site along with theNecropolis of Pantalica. In the central area, the city itself has a population of around 125,000 people. The inhabitants are known as Siracusans, and the local language spoken by its inhabitants is theSicilian language. Syracuse is mentioned in theBible in theActs of the Apostles book at 28:12 asPaul stayed there.[2] The patron saint of the city isSaint Lucy; she was born in Syracuse and her feast day,Saint Lucy\'s Day, is celebrated on 13 December.

Greek period

Syracuse and its surrounding area have been inhabited since ancient times, as shown by the findings in the villages of Stentinello, Ognina, Plemmirio, Matrensa, Cozzo Pantano and Thapsos, which already had a relationship withMycenaean Greece.

Syracuse was founded in 734 or 733 BC by Greek settlers fromCorinth and Tenea, led by the oecist (colonizer)Archias, who called it Sirako, referring to a nearby salt marsh. The nucleus of the ancient city was the small island of Ortygia. The settlers found the land fertile and the native tribes to be reasonably well-disposed to their presence. The city grew and prospered, and for some time stood as the most powerful Greek city anywhere in theMediterranean. Colonies were founded atAkrai (664 BC),Kasmenai (643 BC),Akrillai (VII century BC), Helorus (VII century BC) andKamarina (598 BC). The descendants of the first colonist, called Gamoroi, held the power until they were expelled by the Killichiroi, the lower class of the city. The former, however, returned to power in 485 BC, thanks to the help ofGelo, ruler ofGela. Gelo himself became the despot of the city, and moved many inhabitants of Gela, Kamarina and Megera to Syracuse, building the new quarters ofTyche andNeapolis outside the walls. His program of new constructions included a new theater, designed byDamocopos, which gave the city a flourishing cultural life: this in turn attracted personalities asAeschylus, Ario ofMetimma, Eumelos ofCorinth andSappho, who had been exiled here fromMytilene. The enlarged power of Syracuse made unavoidable the clash against theCarthaginians, who ruled western Sicily. In theBattle of Himera, Gelo, who had allied with Theron ofAgrigento, decisively defeated the African force led byHamilcar. Atemple, entitled to Athena (on the site of the today\'s Cathedral), was erected in the city to commemorate the event

Gelon was succedeed by his brotherHiero, whofought against theEtruscans at Cumae in 474 BC. His rule was eulogized by poets likeSimonides of Ceos,Bacchylides and Pindar, who visited his court. A democratic regime was introduced byThrasybulos (467 BC). The city continued to expand inSicily, fighting against the rebelliousSiculi, and on theTyrrhenian Sea, making expeditions up toCorsica andElba. In the late 5th century BC, Syracuse found itself at war withAthens, which sought more resources to fight thePeloponnesian War. The Syracusans enlisted the aid of a general fromSparta, Athens\' foe in the war, to defeat the Athenians, destroy their ships, and leave them to starve on the island (seeSicilian Expedition). In 401 BC, Syracuse contributed a force of 3,000hoplites and a general toCyrus the Younger\'sArmy of the Ten Thousand.

Then in the early 4th century BC, thetyrantDionysius the Elder was again at war againstCarthage and, although losing Gela and Camarina, kept that power from capturing the whole of Sicily. After the end of the conflict Dionysius built a massive fortress on the Ortygia island of the city and 22km-long walls around all of Syracuse. Another period of expansion saw the destruction ofNaxos, Catania and Lentini, then Syracuse entered again in war against Carthage (397 BC). After various changes of fortune, the Carthaginians managed to besiege Syracuse itself, but were eventually pushed back by a pestilence. A treaty in 392 BC allowed Syracuse to enlarge further its possessions, founding the cities of Adrano, Ancona,Adria, Tindari and Tauromenos, and conqueringReggio Calabria on the continent. Apart from his battle deeds, Dionysius was famous as a patron of art, andPlato himself visited Syracuse several times.

His successor wasDionysius the Younger, who was however expelled byDion in 356 BC. But the latter\'s despotic rule led in turn to his expulsion, and Dionysius reclaimed his throne in 347 BC. A democratic government was installed by Timoleon in 345 BC. The long series of internal struggles had weakened Syracuse\'s power on the island, and Timoleon tried to remedy this, defeating the Carthaginians in 339 BC near theKrimisos river. But the struggle among the city\'s parties restarted after his death and ended with the rise of another tyrant,Agathocles, who seized power with a coup in 317 BC. He resumed the war against Carthage, with alternate fortunes. He however scored a moral success, bringing the war to the Carthaginians\' native African soil, inflicting heavy losses to the enemy. The war ended with another treaty of peace which did not prevent the Carthaginians interfering in the politics of Syracuse after the death of Agathocles (289 BC). The citizens calledPyrrhus of Epirus for help. After a brief period under the rule of Epirus,Hiero II seized power in 275 BC.

Hiero inaugurated a period of 50 years of peace and prosperity, in which Syracause became one of the most renowned capitals of Antiquity. He issued the so-called Lex Hieronica, which was later adopted by the Romans for their administration of Sicily; he also had the theater enlarged and a new immensealtar, the \"Hiero\'s Ara\", built. Under his rule lived the most famous Syracusan, thenatural philosopherArchimedes. Among his many inventions were various military engines including theclaw of Archimedes, later used to resist theRoman siege of 214BC–212BC. Literary figures includedTheocritus and others.

Hiero\'s successor, the youngHieronymus (ruled from 215 BC), broke the alliance with the Romans after their defeat at theBattle of Cannae and acceptedCarthage\'s support. The Romans, led by consulMarcus Claudius Marcellus,besieged the city in 214 BC. The city held out for three years, but fell in 212 BC. It is believed to have fallen due to a peace party opening a small door in the wall to negotiate a peace, but the Romans charged through the door and took the city, killing Archimedes in the process.

From Roman domination to the Middle Ages

Though declining slowly by the years, Syracuse maintained the status of capital of the Roman government of Sicily and seat of thepraetor. It remained an important port for the trades between the Eastern and the Western parts of the Empire.Christianity spread in the city through the efforts ofPaul of Tarsus and Saint Marziano, the first bishop of the city, who made it one of the main centres ofproselytism in the West. In the age of the persecutions massivecatacombs were carved, whose size is second only to those of Rome.

After a period ofVandal rule, Syracuse and the island was recovered byBelisarius for theByzantine Empire (31 December 535). From 663 to 668 Syracuse was the seat of Emperor Constans II, as well as metropolis of the whole Sicilian Church.

Another siege in 878, resulted in the city coming under two centuries ofMuslim rule. The capital was moved from Syracuse toPalermo. The Cathedral was converted into amosque and the quarter on the Ortygia island was gradually rebuilt along Islamic styles. The city, nevertheless, maintained important trade relationships, and housed a relatively flourishing cultural and artistic life: several Arab poets, includingIbn Hamdis, the most important Sicilian poet of the 12th century, flourished in the city.

In 1038, the Byzantine generalGeorge Maniaces reconquered the city, sending the relics of St. Lucy toConstantinople. The eponymous castle on the cape of Ortygia bears his name, although it was built under theHohenstaufen rule. In 1085 theNormans entered Syracuse, one of the lastArab strongholds, after a summer-long siege byRoger I of Sicily and his sonJordan of Hauteville, who was given the city as count. New quarters were built, and the cathedral was restored, as well as other churches.

In 1194Henry VI of Swabia occupied Syracuse. After a short period ofGenoese rule (1205–1220), which favoured a rise of trades, Syracuse was conquered back by emperorFrederick II. He began the construction of theCastello Maniace, the Bishops\' Palace and the Bellomo Palace. Frederick\'s death brought a period of unrest and feudal anarchy. In the struggle between theAnjou andAragonese monarchies, Syracuse sided with the Aragonese and defeated the Anjou in 1298, receiving from the Spanish sovereigns great privileges in reward. The pre-eminence of baronal families is also shown by the construction of the palaces of Abela,Chiaramonte, Nava,Montalto.

Hercules is the Roman name for the Greekdivinehero Heracles, who was the son ofZeus (Roman equivalentJupiter) and the mortalAlcmene. Inclassical mythology, Hercules is famous for his strength and for his numerous far-ranging adventures.

The Romans adapted the Greek hero\'s iconography and myths for their literature and art under the name Hercules. In laterWestern art and literature and inpopular culture, Hercules is more commonly used than Heracles as the name of the hero. Hercules was a multifaceted figure with contradictory characteristics, which enabled later artists and writers to pick and choose how to represent him. This article provides an introduction to representations of Hercules in thelater tradition.

Labours

Hercules is known for his many adventures, which took him to the far reaches of theGreco-Roman world. One cycle of these adventures becamecanonical as the \"Twelve Labours,\" but the list has variations. One traditional order of the labours is found in the Bibliotheca as follows:

Slay the Nemean Lion .
Slay the nine-headed Lernaean Hydra .
Capture the Golden Hind of Artemis .
Capture the Erymanthian Boar .
Clean the Augean stables in a single day.
Slay the Stymphalian Birds .
Capture the Cretan Bull .
Steal the Mares of Diomedes .
Obtain the girdle of Hippolyta , Queen of the Amazons .
Obtain the cattle of the monster Geryon .
Steal the apples of the Hesperides .
Capture and bring back Cerberus .

The Latin name Hercules was borrowed throughEtruscan, where it is represented variously asHeracle, Hercle, and other forms. Hercules was a favorite subject forEtruscan art, and appears often onbronze mirrors. The Etruscan form Herceler derives from the Greek Heracles viasyncope. A mild oath invoking Hercules (Hercule! or Mehercle!) was a commoninterjection inClassical Latin.

Baby Hercules strangling a snake sent to
kill him in his cradle (Roman marble, 2nd century CE)

Hercules had a number ofmyths that were distinctly Roman. One of these is Hercules\' defeat ofCacus, who was terrorizing the countryside of Rome. The hero was associated with theAventine Hill through his sonAventinus.Mark Antony considered him a personal patron god, as did the emperorCommodus. Hercules received various forms ofreligious veneration, including as adeity concerned with children and childbirth, in part because of myths about his precocious infancy, and in part because he fathered countless children. Roman brides wore a special belt tied with the \"knot of Hercules\", which was supposed to be hard to untie.[4] The comic playwrightPlautus presents the myth of Hercules\' conception as a sex comedy in his play Amphitryon;Seneca wrote the tragedy Hercules Furens about his bout with madness. During theRoman Imperial era, Hercules was worshipped locally from Hispania throughGaul.

Medieval mythography

After the Roman Empire becameChristianized, mythological narratives were often reinterpreted asallegory, influenced by the philosophy oflate antiquity. In the 4th century,Servius had described Hercules\' return from the underworld as representing his ability to overcome earthly desires and vices, or the earth itself as a consumer of bodies. In medieval mythography, Hercules was one of the heroes seen as a strong role model who demonstrated both valor and wisdom, with the monsters he battles as moral obstacles. Oneglossator noted that whenHercules became a constellation, he showed that strength was necessary to gain entrance to Heaven.

Medieval mythography was written almost entirely in Latin, and original Greek texts were little used as sources for Hercules\' myths.

Renaissance mythography

The Renaissance and the invention of theprinting press brought a renewed interest in and publication of Greek literature. Renaissance mythography drew more extensively on the Greek tradition of Heracles, typically under the Romanized name Hercules, or the alternate nameAlcides. In a chapter of his book Mythologiae (1567), the influential mythographerNatale Conti collected and summarized an extensive range of myths concerning the birth, adventures, and death of the hero under his Roman name Hercules. Conti begins his lengthy chapter on Hercules with an overview description that continues the moralizing impulse of the Middle Ages:

Hercules, who subdued and destroyed monsters, bandits, and criminals, was justly famous and renowned for his great courage. His great and glorious reputation was worldwide, and so firmly entrenched that he\'ll always be remembered. In fact the ancients honored him with his own temples, altars, ceremonies, and priests. But it was his wisdom and great soul that earned those honors; noble blood, physical strength, and political power just aren\'t good enough.

The history of Ancient Greek coinage can be divided (along with most other Greek art forms) into four periods, theArchaic, theClassical, theHellenistic and theRoman. The Archaic period extends from the introduction of coinage to the Greek world during the7th century BC until thePersian Wars in about 480 BC. The Classical period then began, and lasted until the conquests ofAlexander the Great in about 330 BC, which began the Hellenistic period, extending until theRoman absorption of the Greek world in the 1st century BC. The Greek cities continued to produce their own coins for several more centuries under Roman rule. The coins produced during this period are calledRoman provincial coins or Greek Imperial Coins. Ancient Greek coins of all four periods span over a period of more than ten centuries.

Weight standards and denominations Above: Six rod-shaped obeloi (oboloi) displayed at the Numismatic Museum of Athens , discovered at Heraion of Argos . Below: grasp[1] of six oboloi forming one drachma Electrum coin from Ephesus , 620-600 BC, known as Phanes\' coin . Obverse: Stag grazing, ΦΑΝΕΩΣ (retrograde). Reverse: Two incuse punches.

The basic standards of the Ancient Greek monetary system were theAttic standard, based on the Atheniandrachma of 4.3 grams of silver and theCorinthian standard based on thestater of 8.6 grams of silver, that was subdivided into three silver drachmas of 2.9 grams. The word drachm(a) means \"a handful\", literally \"a grasp\". Drachmae were divided into six obols (from the Greek word for aspit), and six spits made a \"handful\". This suggests that before coinage came to be used in Greece, spits inprehistoric times were used as measures of daily transaction. In archaic/pre-numismatic times iron was valued for making durable tools and weapons, and its casting in spit form may have actually represented a form of transportablebullion, which eventually became bulky and inconvenient after the adoption of precious metals. Because of this very aspect,Spartan legislation famously forbade issuance of Spartan coin, and enforced the continued use of iron spits so as to discourage avarice and the hoarding of wealth. In addition to its original meaning (which also gave theeuphemisticdiminutive \"obelisk\", \"little spit\"), the word obol (ὀβολός, obolós, or ὀβελός, obelós) was retained as a Greek word for coins of small value, still used as such in Modern Greek slang (όβολα, óvola, \"monies\").

The obol was further subdivided into tetartemorioi (singular tetartemorion) which represented 1/4 of an obol, or 1/24 of a drachm. This coin (which was known to have been struck inAthens,Colophon, and several other cities) is mentioned by Aristotle as the smallest silver coin.:237 Various multiples of this denomination were also struck, including the trihemitetartemorion (literally three half-tetartemorioi) valued at 3/8 of an obol.:

Denominations of silver drachma Image Denomination Value Weight Dekadrachm 10 drachmas 43 grams Tetradrachm 4 drachmas 17.2 grams Didrachm 2 drachmas 8.6 grams Drachma 6 obols 4.3 grams Tetrobol 4 obols 2.85 grams Triobol (hemidrachm) 3 obols 2.15 grams Diobol 2 obols 1.43 grams Obol 4 tetartemorions 0.72 grams Tritartemorion 3 tetartemorions 0.54 grams Hemiobol 2 tetartemorions 0.36 grams Trihemitartemorion 3/2 tetartemorions 0.27 grams Tetartemorion 0.18 grams Hemitartemorion ½ tetartemorion 0.09 grams Archaic period Archaic coinage Uninscribed electrum coin from Lydia , 6th century BCE. Obverse: lion head and sunburst Reverse: plain square imprints, probably used to standardise weight Electrum coin from Ephesus , 620-600 BC. Obverse: Forepart of stag. Reverse: Square incuse punch.

The first coins were issued in either Lydia or Ionia in Asia Minor at some time before 600 BC, either by the non-Greek Lydians for their own use or perhaps because Greek mercenaries wanted to be paid in precious metal at the conclusion of their time of service, and wanted to have their payments marked in a way that would authenticate them. These coins were made ofelectrum, an alloy of gold and silver that was highly prized and abundant in that area. By the middle of the 6th century BC, technology had advanced, making the production of pure gold and silver coins simpler. Accordingly, KingCroesus introduced a bi-metallic standard that allowed for coins of pure gold and pure silver to be struck and traded in the marketplace.

Coins of Aegina Silver stater of Aegina, 550-530 BC. Obv. Sea turtle with large pellets down center. Rev. incuse square with eight sections. After the end of the Peloponnesian War , 404 BC, Sea turtle was replaced by the land tortoise . Silver drachma of Aegina, 404-340 BC. Obverse: Land tortoise . Reverse: inscription AΙΓ[INAΤΟΝ] ([of the] Aeg[inetans]) \"Aegina\" and dolphin.

The Greek world was divided into more than two thousand self-governing city-states (inGreek, poleis), and more than half of them issued their own coins. Some coins circulated widely beyond their polis, indicating that they were being used in inter-city trade; the first example appears to have been the silver stater or didrachm ofAegina that regularly turns up in hoards inEgypt and theLevant, places which were deficient in silver supply. As such coins circulated more widely, other cities began to mint coins to this \"Aeginetan\" weight standard of (6.1 grams to the drachm), other cities included their own symbols on the coins. This is not unlike present dayEuro coins, which are recognisably from a particular country, but usable all over theEuro zone.

Athenian coins, however, were struck on the \"Attic\" standard, with a drachm equaling 4.3 grams of silver. Over time, Athens\' plentiful supply of silver from the mines atLaurion and its increasing dominance in trade made this the pre-eminent standard. These coins, known as \"owls\" because of their central design feature, were also minted to an extremely tight standard of purity and weight. This contributed to their success as the premier trade coin of their era. Tetradrachms on this weight standard continued to be a widely used coin (often the most widely used) through the classical period. By the time ofAlexander the Great and hisHellenistic successors, this large denomination was being regularly used to make large payments, or was often saved for hoarding.

Classical period A Syracusan tetradrachm (c. 415–405 BC)
Obverse: head of the nymph Arethusa , surrounded by four swimming dolphins and a rudder
Reverse: a racing quadriga , its charioteer crowned by the goddess Victory in flight. Tetradrachm of Athens, (5th century BC)
Obverse: a portrait of Athena , patron goddess of the city, in helmet
Reverse: the owl of Athens, with an olive sprig and the inscription \"ΑΘΕ\", short for ΑΘΕΝΑΙΟΝ, \"of the Athenians \"

TheClassical period saw Greek coinage reach a high level of technical and aesthetic quality. Larger cities now produced a range of fine silver and gold coins, most bearing a portrait of their patron god or goddess or a legendary hero on one side, and a symbol of the city on the other. Some coins employed a visual pun: some coins fromRhodes featured arose, since the Greek word for rose is rhodon. The use of inscriptions on coins also began, usually the name of the issuing city.

The wealthy cities of Sicily produced some especially fine coins. The large silver decadrachm (10-drachm) coin fromSyracuse is regarded by many collectors as the finest coin produced in the ancient world, perhaps ever. Syracusan issues were rather standard in their imprints, one side bearing the head of the nymphArethusa and the other usually a victoriousquadriga. Thetyrants of Syracuse were fabulously rich, and part of theirpublic relations policy was to fundquadrigas for theOlympic chariot race, a very expensive undertaking. As they were often able to finance more than one quadriga at a time, they were frequent victors in this highly prestigious event.

Syracuse was one of the epicenters of numismatic art during the classical period. Led by the engravers Kimon and Euainetos, Syracuse produced some of the finest coin designs of antiquity.

Hellenistic period Gold 20-stater of Eucratides I , the largest gold coin ever minted in Antiquity. Drachma of Alexandria , 222-235 AD. Obverse: Laureate head of Alexander Severus , KAI(ΣΑΡ) MAP(ΚΟΣ) AYP(ΗΛΙΟΣ) ΣЄY(ΑΣΤΟΣ) AΛЄΞANΔPOΣ ЄYΣЄ(ΒΗΣ). Reverse: Bust of Asclepius .

The Hellenistic period was characterized by the spread of Greek culture across a large part of the known world. Greek-speaking kingdoms were established in Egypt andSyria, and for a time also inIran and as far east as what is nowAfghanistan and northwesternIndia. Greek traders spread Greek coins across this vast area, and the new kingdoms soon began to produce their own coins. Because these kingdoms were much larger and wealthier than the Greek city states of the classical period, their coins tended to be more mass-produced, as well as larger, and more frequently in gold. They often lacked the aesthetic delicacy of coins of the earlier period.

Still, some of theGreco-Bactrian coins, and those of their successors in India, theIndo-Greeks, are considered the finest examples ofGreek numismatic art with \"a nice blend of realism and idealization\", including the largest coins to be minted in the Hellenistic world: the largest gold coin was minted byEucratides (reigned 171–145 BC), the largest silver coin by the Indo-Greek kingAmyntas Nikator (reigned c. 95–90 BC). The portraits \"show a degree of individuality never matched by the often bland depictions of their royal contemporaries further West\" (Roger Ling, \"Greece and the Hellenistic World\").

The most striking new feature of Hellenistic coins was the use of portraits of living people, namely of the kings themselves. This practice had begun in Sicily, but was disapproved of by other Greeks as showinghubris (arrogance). But the kings ofPtolemaic Egypt andSeleucid Syria had no such scruples: having already awarded themselves with \"divine\" status, they issued magnificent gold coins adorned with their own portraits, with the symbols of their state on the reverse. The names of the kings were frequently inscribed on the coin as well. This established a pattern for coins which has persisted ever since: a portrait of the king, usually in profile and striking a heroic pose, on the obverse, with his name beside him, and a coat of arms or other symbol of state on the reverse.

Minting

All Greek coins werehandmade, rather than machined as modern coins are. The design for the obverse was carved (inincuso) into a block of bronze or possibly iron, called adie. The design of the reverse was carved into a similar punch. A blank disk of gold, silver, or electrum was cast in a mold and then, placed between these two and the punch struck hard with a hammer, raising the design on both sides of the coin.

Coins as a symbol of the city-state

Coins of Greek city-states depicted a uniquesymbol or feature, an early form ofemblem, also known asbadge in numismatics, that represented their city and promoted the prestige of their state. Corinthian stater for example depicted pegasus the mythological winged stallion, tamed by their heroBellerophon. Coins ofEphesus depicted thebee sacred toArtemis. Drachmas of Athens depicted theowl of Athena. Drachmas ofAegina depicted achelone. Coins ofSelinunte depicted a \"selinon\" (σέλινον - celery). Coins ofHeraclea depictedHeracles. Coins ofGela depicted a man-headed bull, the personification of the riverGela. Coins ofRhodes depicted a \"rhodon\" (ῥόδον[8] - rose). Coins ofKnossos depicted thelabyrinth or the mythical creatureminotaur, a symbol of theMinoan Crete. Coins ofMelos depicted a \"mēlon\" (μήλον -apple). Coins ofThebes depicted a Boeotian shield.

Corinthian stater with pegasus Coin of Rhodes with a rose Didrachm of Selinunte with a celery Coin of Ephesus with a bee Stater of Olympia depicting Nike Coin of Melos with an apple Obolus from Stymphalia with a Stymphalian bird Coin of Thebes with a Boeotian shield Coin of Gela with a man-headed bull, the personification of the river Gela Didrachm of Knossos depicting the Minotaur Commemorative coins Dekadrachm of Syracuse [disambiguation needed]. Head of Arethusa or queen Demarete. ΣΥΡΑΚΟΣΙΟΝ (of the Syracusians), around four dolphins

The use ofcommemorative coins to celebrate a victory or an achievement of the state was a Greek invention. Coins are valuable, durable and pass through many hands. In an age without newspapers or other mass media, they were an ideal way of disseminating a political message. The first such coin was a commemorative decadrachm issued byAthens following the Greek victory in thePersian Wars. On these coins that were struck around 480 BC, the owl of Athens, the goddessAthena\'s sacred bird, was depicted facing the viewer with wings outstretched, holding a spray of olive leaves, theolive tree being Athena\'s sacred plant and also a symbol of peace and prosperity. The message was that Athens was powerful and victorious, but also peace-loving. Another commemorative coin, a silver dekadrachm known as \" Demareteion\", was minted atSyracuse at approximately the same time to celebrate the defeat of theCarthaginians. On the obverse it bears a portrait ofArethusa or queen Demarete.

Ancient Greek coins today

Collections of Ancient Greek coins are held by museums around the world, of which the collections of theBritish Museum, theAmerican Numismatic Society, and theDanish National Museum are considered to be the finest. The American Numismatic Society collection comprises some 100,000 ancient Greek coins from many regions and mints, from Spain and North Africa to Afghanistan. To varying degrees, these coins are available for study by academics and researchers.

There is also an active collector market for Greek coins. Several sale houses in Europe and the United States specialize in ancient coins (including Greek) and there is also a large on-line market for such coins.

Hoards of Greek coins are still being found in Europe, Middle East, and North Africa, and some of the coins in these hoards find their way onto the market. Coins are the only art form from the Ancient world which is common enough and durable enough to be within the reach of ordinary collectors.

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