1919 Antique JABOTINSKY BUST Betar WW1 JEWISH LEGION Irgun ETZEL Israel BRIGADE
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1919 Antique JABOTINSKY BUST Betar WW1 JEWISH LEGION Irgun ETZEL Israel BRIGADE:
$1250.00
DESCRIPOTION : Up for sale is a unique and extremely rare MUSEUM PIECE . It is an almost 100 years old BUST - STATUE - SCULPTURE of ZE\'EV JABOTINSKY dated 1909( TAR\'AT ) , Clothed with the FULL MILITARY UNIFORMS of the LIEUTENANT in the 38th ROYAL FUSILIERS of the ROYAL REGIMENT of the BRITISH ARMY. ( Please watch hereunder for some reference photos ). The BUST was very likely created in 1909 or right after this date. The BUST carries a HEBREW TEXT : \"ZE\'EV JABOTINSKY in the YEAR 1919\". Unlike HERZL , There are no BUSTS of JABOTINSKY and this EXTREMELY RARE ANTIQUE BUST of 39 years old JABOTINSKY is very definitely a MUSEUM ARTIFACT. JABOTINSKY , The most important REVISIONIST ZIONIST LEADER was the founder of the JEWISH LEGION , Of BETAR and of the IRGUN - ETZEL. The BUST is casted in plaster. It is painted as issued in brown with glimpses of gold. Dimentions around 13\" ( Height ) x 6.5\" x 8 ( width ) \" . Very good used condition. Beautiful patina. Small age imperfections caused by its almost 100 years of age were nicely restored.( Pls watch the scan for a reliable AS IS image ) . Will be shipped in a special rigid protective packaging .
SHIPPMENT : Shipp worldwidevia registered mail is FREE( Airmail extra - Large and heavy bust - Special protective packaging ) . Will be shipped inside a highly protective packaging. Will be sent within3-5 days after payment . Kindly note that duration of Int\'l registered airmail is around 14 days.MORE DETAILS : The TheJewish Legion(1917–1921) is an unofficial name used to refer to fivebattalionsofJewishvolunteers, the 38th to 42nd (Service) Battalions of theRoyal Fusiliers, raised in theBritish Armyto fight against theOttoman Empireduring theFirst World War.Contents[hide]· 1Backgroundo 1.1Gallipoli Front· 2Official formation· 3Action in the Jordan Valley, 1918· 4Legacy· 5Gallery· 6Members of Jewish Legion· 7See also· 8References· 9Further reading· 10External linksBackground[edit]Jabotinsky (left) and Trumpeldor (right) in uniformIn February 1915, a small committee inAlexandriaapproved a plan ofZeev JabotinskyandJoseph Trumpeldorto form a military unit from Russian Jewish émigrés fromPalestinethat would participate in the British effort to \"liberate\" Palestine from theOttoman Empire.[1]The British commanderGeneral Maxwellmet a delegation, led by Jabotinsky, on 15 March. The General said he was unable, under the Army Act, to enlist foreign nationals as fighting troops, but that he could form them into a volunteer transport Mule Corps.[1][2]Jabotinsky rejected the idea and left for Europe to seek other support for a Jewish unit, but Trumpeldor accepted it and began recruiting volunteers from among the Jews in Egypt who had been deported there by the Ottomans in the previous year.[1]TheBritish Armyformed 650 of them into theZion Mule Corps, of which 562 served in theGallipoli Campaign.[1]Gallipoli Front[edit]Main articles:Gallipoli CampaignandLanding at Cape HellesCape Helles landing mapThe need on theGallipoli peninsulafor means to carry water to the troops was considered so urgent that in mid-April, a request was forwarded to Egypt for the Zion Mule Corps to be sent immediately, regardless of its lack of equipment.[3]Its Commanding Officer wasLieutenant-ColonelJohn Henry Patterson,DSO, an Irish Protestant, andCaptainTrumpeldor wasSecond-in-command; Jabotinsky served as an officer.[dubious–discuss]The Zion Mule Corps landed atCape Hellesfrom27–28 April,four weeks after being raised, having been stranded atMudroswhen its ship ran aground. The corps was embarked in the same ship as the Indian 9th Mule Corps bound forGaba Tepeand so a detour to Helles was ordered. The Zion Mule Corps was disembarked under artillery fire from the Asiatic shore, with help of volunteers from the 9th Mule Corps and began carrying supplies forward immediately.[4]ADistinguished Conduct Medalwas awarded to Private M. Groushkowsky, who, nearKrithiaon 5 May, prevented his mules from stampeding under heavy bombardment and despite being wounded in both arms, delivered the ammunition.[5]Trumpeldor was shot through the shoulder but refused to leave the battlefield.[6]Patterson later wrote: \"Many of the Zionists whom I thought somewhat lacking in courage showed themselves fearless to a degree when under heavy fire, while Captain Trumpeldor actually revelled in it, and the hotter it became the more he liked it ...\"The men returned to Alexandria on 10 January 1916. The Zion Mule Corps were disbanded on 26 May 1916. The Commonwealth War Graves Commission lists 13 members of the Zion Mule Corps as fatalities.[7]Official formation[edit]39th Battalion, Jewish Legion, atFort Edward (Nova Scotia),Yom Kippur, 1918Badge of theRoyal FusiliersBetween the dissolution of the Zion Mule Corps and the formation of the Jewish Legion, Jabotinsky and Trumpeldor and 120 Zion Mule Corps veterans served together in 16Platoonof the20th Battalion,London Regiment.Finally, in August 1917, the formation of a Jewish battalion was officially announced. The unit was designated as the 38th Battalion of theRoyal Fusiliersand included British volunteers, as well as members of the former Zion Mule Corps and a large number of Russian Jews. In April 1918, it was joined by the 39th Battalion, raised atFort Edward, Nova Scotia, which was made up almost entirely of Jews who were resident in the United States and Canada.[8]Thousands of Palestinian Jews also applied to join the Legion and in 1918, more than 1,000 were enlisted. Ninety-two Ottoman Jews who had been captured in the fighting earlier were also permitted to enlist. This group was organized as the 40th Battalion. The 41st and 42nd Battalions were depot battalions stationed inPlymouth, England. In his memoirs about the Legion Jabotinsky described the composition of the 5000-member Legion as; \"thirty-four per cent from the United States, thirty per cent from Palestine, twenty-eight per cent from England, six per cent from Canada, one per cent Ottoman war prisoners, one per cent from Argentina.\" The soldiers of the 38th, 39th and later the 40th Battalions of the Royal Fusiliers served in theJordan Valleyand fought the Ottomans north ofJerusalem.Action in the Jordan Valley, 1918[edit]Main articles:Battle of Jerusalem (1917)andBattle of Megiddo (1918)In June 1918, the volunteers of the 38th Battalion began engaging the Ottomans some twenty miles north of Jerusalem. In the fighting in the Jordan Valley, more than twenty Legionnaires were killed, wounded, or captured, the rest came down with malaria, and thirty of this group later died. The Legion then came under the command ofMajor-GeneralEdward Chaytor,[9]who commanded theANZAC Mounted Division.Besides various skirmishes, the Legion also participated in theBattle of Megiddoin mid-September, 1918, widely considered to have been one of the final and decisive victories of the Ottoman front.The Legion\'s mission was to cross theJordan River. Jabotinsky led the effort. Later, he was decorated and Chaytor told the Jewish troops: \"By forcing the Jordan fords, you helped in no small measure to win the great victory gained at Damascus.\"The cap badge of the First Judaeans 1919-1921: menorah and word קדימהKadimaThe Jewish Legion Veteran ribbon.Legacy[edit]The Legion casualties in World War fromJewish Legion1Almost all the members of the Jewish regiments were discharged immediately after the end of World War I in November 1918. Some of them returned to their respective countries, others settled in Palestine to realize their Zionist aspirations. In late 1919, the Jewish Legion was reduced to one battalion titledFirst Judaeans, and awarded a distinctive cap badge, amenorahwith theHebrewword קדימהKadima(forward) at the base.Former members of the Legion took part in the defence of Jewish communities during theRiots in Palestine of 1920, which resulted in Jabotinsky\'s arrest. Two former members of the Legion were killed with Trumpeldor atTel Hai. One former member of the Legion was killed in Tel Aviv-Jaffaduring theJaffa riotsof 1921. Some members of the Jewish Legion settled in moshavAvihayil. Another former member died in service in World War II.[11]Gallery[edit]This section contains agallery of images.Galleries containing indiscriminate images of the article subject are discouraged; please improve or remove the section accordingly, moving freely licensed images toWikimedia Commonsif not already hosted there.· A recruitment poster published in American Jewish magazines.Daughter of Zion(representing the Jewish people): \'Your Old New Land must have you! Join the Jewish regiment.\'· December 1917. Jewish Legion soldiers at theWestern Wallafter the British take-over of Jerusalem· February 1918 The 38th battalion of the Jewish Legion marches in the streets of London.· Col Margolin leading the 39th Battalion of the Jewish Legion through Bet Shemen· The Choir of the Jewish Legion· Colonel John Henry Patterson, R.E.· Lt. Jabotinskyin the uniform of the Royal Fusiliers· PrivateDavid Ben-Gurion, a volunteer in the Jewish Legion 1918· Private {Sir} Jacob Epstein· Colonel Eliezer Margolin of the \"First Judeans\"· The Flag of the \"First Judeans\" 1919-1921Members of Jewish Legion[edit]· Gershon Agron, Mayor of Jerusalem.· Nathan Ausubel,Jewish-Americanauthor.· Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, secondIsraeli President.· Yaakov Dori,Haganahleader; firstChief of Staffof theIsrael Defense Forces.· Maxwell H. Dubin, rabbi, Wilshire Boulevard Temple, Los Angeles.· SirJacob Epstein, British sculptor.· Levi Eshkol, thirdIsraeli Prime Minister.· Louis Fischer, Jewish-American journalist and author.· Eliyahu Golomb, founding member of the Haganah.· Dr. Hirsh Loeb Gordon, Rabbi and physican· David Grün, laterBen-Gurion, first Israeli Prime Minister.· Nachum Gutman, Israeli Painter· Isarel Hirschfeld, Israeli Painter· Dov Hoz, Zionist activist, Haganah fighter.· Bernard Joseph, laterDov Yosef, Governor of Jewish Jerusalem during the 1948 siege; longtime Labor MK.· Berl Katznelson, Zionist philosopher and activist.· Reuven Katzenelson - Sgt under Joseph Trumpeldor atBattle of Gallipoliand father ofShmuel Tamir· Bert \"Yank\" LevyInternationalist in Spain and Military instructor for theBritish Home Guard, which served as the basis for a popular handbook onguerrilla warfare[12]· Gideon Mer,[13]physician, veteran of Zion Mule Corps, Jewish Legion and British Army in World War II. Served as medic inIsraeli War of Independence; later worked in the Israeli Ministry of Health. {Note: he is the unnamed Officer during World War II in charge of anti-Malaria program mentioned in Martin Sugarman\'s article on the Zion Mule Corps}.· John Henry Patterson- Commander of Zion Mule Corps and 38th Battalion Royal Fusiliers· James Armand de Rothschild,D.C.M.Major, 39th Royal Fusiliers Battalion; CaptainRoyal Canadian Dragoons; a member of theRothschild family.· Redcliffe N. Salaman, medical officer, since April 1918 in Egypt and Palestine, 38th Battalion, then 39th ofRoyal Fusiliers· Moshe Smilansky, Pioneer of the First Aliyah, a Zionist leader who advocated peaceful coexistence with the Arabs in Mandatory Palestine, a farmer, and a prolific author.· Edward Sperling- humorist and laterdirector-generalof the Ministry of Trade and Industry under theBritish Mandate of Palestine· Edwin Herbert Samuel, 2nd Viscount Samuel;CMGson ofHerbert Samuel, 1st Viscount Samuel.· E. L. Sukenik, Israeli archaeologist; father ofYigael YadinSee also[edit]· Jewish Brigade, a similar military formation of volunteer Jews that fought in the Second World War.· Tilhas Tizig Gesheften, organization which grew out of the Jewish BrigadeTheRoyal Fusiliers (City of London Regiment)was aline infantryregimentof theBritish Armyin continuous existence for 283 years. It was known as the7th Regiment of Footuntil theChilders Reformsof 1881.[1]TheRoyal Fusiliers Monument, a memorial dedicated to the Royal Fusiliers who died during theFirst World War, stands onHolbornin theCity of London.Throughout its long existence the regiment served in many wars and conflicts, including theSecond Boer War, the First World War and theSecond World War. In 1968 the regiment was amalgamated with the other regiments of theFusilier Brigade– theRoyal Northumberland Fusiliers, theRoyal Warwickshire Fusiliersand theLancashire Fusiliers– to form a newlarge regiment, theRoyal Regiment of Fusiliers.Contents[hide]· 1Historyo 1.1Formationo 1.2American War of Independenceo 1.3Peninsular Waro 1.4From 1881 to 1914o 1.5First World War§ 1.5.1Regular Army§ 1.5.2New Armieso 1.6Second World Waro 1.7Post 1945· 2Fusiliers Museum· 3Battle honours· 4Colonelso 4.1Colonels-in-Chiefo 4.2Colonels· 5Victoria Cross· 6See also· 7References· 8Sources· 9External linksHistory[edit]The Royal Fusiliers exercising the right to march through theCity of Londonwith fixed bayonets, drums beating and colours flyingFormation[edit]It was formed as afusilierregiment in 1685 byGeorge Legge, 1st Baron Dartmouth, from two companies of theTower of Londonguard, and was originally called theOrdnance Regiment. Most regiments were equipped withmatchlockmusketsat the time, but the Ordnance Regiment were armed withflintlockfusils. This was because their task was to be an escort for theartillery, for which matchlocks would have carried the risk of igniting the open-topped barrels ofgunpowder.[2]The regiment became the 7th Regiment of Foot (Royal Fusiliers) in 1751, although a variety of spellings of the word \"fusilier\" persisted until the 1780s, when the modern spelling was formalised.[3]American War of Independence[edit]The Royal Fusiliers were sent to Canada in 1773. The regiment was broken up into detachments which served atMontreal,Quebec,Fort Chamblyand Fort St Johns (Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu). In the face of the American invasion of Canada in 1775/76, most of the regiment was forced to surrender. The 80 man garrison of Fort Chambly attempted to resist a 400-man Rebel force but ultimately had to surrender. This is where the regiment lost its first set of colours. Captain Owen\'s company of the 7th, along with a handful of recruits assisted with theBattle of Quebecin December 1775.[2]The men taken prisoner during the defence of Canada were exchanged to British held New York City in late 1776. Here the regiment was rebuilt and garrisoned New York and New Jersey. In October 1777, the 7th participated in the successful assaults onFort ClintonandFort Montgomery. In December 1777, the regiment reinforced the garrison ofPhiladelphia. During the British evacuation back toNew York City, the regiment participated in theBattle of Monmouthin June 1778. The 7th participated inTryon\'s raidin July 1779.[2]Late in 1779, the Royal Fusiliers were brigaded with the 23rd Regiment of Foot for thecapture of Charleston. Once Charleston fell, the regiment helped garrison the city.[2]In January 1781, a contingent of 171 men from the Royal Fusiliers were detached from GeneralCharles Cornwallis\'s army and fought under the command of Lieutenant ColonelBanastre Tarletonat theBattle of Cowpensin January 1781.[4]The Royal Fusiliers were in the first line during the battle: Tarleton was defeated and the regiment\'s colours were lost in the heat of the battle.[2]A contingent from the regiment fought through North Carolina participating in theBattle of Guilford Court Housein March 1781.[5]There was another detachment which remained in the South, under the command of Lt Col.Alured Clarke: these men remained in garrison in Charleston, until they were transferred toSavannah, Georgia in December 1781.[6]Peninsular War[edit]The Royal Fusiliers formed part of the famed Fusilier Brigade in Wellington\'sPeninsular Armyalong with the23rd Regiment of Foot(The Royal Welch Fusiliers) at theBattle of Albuheraon 16May 1811.[7]From 1881 to 1914[edit]In 1881, under theChilders Reformswhen regimental numbers were abolished the regiment becameThe Royal Fusiliers (City of London Regiment).[8][9]The 2nd battalion of the regiment took part in theSecond Boer Warfrom 1899 to 1902.[10]A 4th regular battalion was raised in 1900, and receivedcoloursfrom thePrince of Wales(Colonel-in-Chief of the regiment) in July 1902.[11]First World War[edit]22 August 1914: Men of \"A\" Company of the 4th Battalion, Royal Fusiliers (City of London Regiment), resting in the town square atMons.A 1915 recruitment poster for 2nd City of London Battalion, Royal Fusiliers.The Royal Fusiliers served with distinction in the First World War:[12]Regular Army[edit]The 1st Battalion landed atSaint-Nazaireas part of the17th Brigadein the6th Divisionin September 1914 for service on theWestern Front;[13]major engagements involving the battalion included theBattle of the Sommein autumn 1916 and theBattle of Passchendaelein autumn 1917.[14]The 2nd Battalion landed atGallipolias part of the86th Brigadein the29th Divisionin April 1915; after being evacuated in December 1915, it moved to Egypt in March 1916 and then landed inMarseillein March 1916 for service on the Western Front;[13]major engagements involving the battalion included the Battle of the Somme in autumn 1916 and theBattle of Arrasin spring 1917.[14]The 3rd Battalion landed atLe Havreas part of the85th Brigadein the28th Divisionin January 1915; major engagements involving the battalion included theSecond Battle of Ypresin April 1915 and theBattle of Loosin September 1915.[14]The battalion moved to Egypt in October 1915 and then toSalonikain July 1918.[13]The 4th Battalion landed at Le Havre as part of the9th Brigadein the3rd Divisionin August 1914 for service on the Western Front;[13]major engagements involving the battalion included theBattle of Monsand theBattle of Le Cateauin August 1914, theFirst Battle of the Marneand theFirst Battle of the Aisnein September 1914 and theBattle of La Bassée, theBattle of Messinesand theFirst Battle of Ypresin October 1914.[14]Members of the Battalion won the first twoVictoria Crossesof the war near Mons in August 1914 (LieutenantMaurice Dease[15]and PrivateSidney Godley).[16]New Armies[edit]The 8th and 9th (Service) Battalions landed in France and both saw action on the Western Front.[13]The 10th (Service) Battalion, better known as the Stock Exchange Battalion, was formed in 1914 when 1,600 members of theLondon Stock Exchangejoined up: 400 were killed on the Western Front.[17]The 11th, 12th, 13th and 17th (Service) Battalions landed in France and all four battalions saw action on the Western Front.[13]The 18th through 21st (Service) Battalions of the regiment were recruited frompublic schools; all four battalions saw action on the Western Front.[13]The 22nd (Service) Battalion, which was recruited from the citizens ofKensington, also landed in France and saw action on the Western Front.[13]The 23rd and 24th (Service) Battalion, better known as theSportsmen\'s Battalions, also landed in France and saw action on the Western Front:[13]they were among thePals battalions.[18]The25th (Frontiersmen) Battalion, Royal Fusiliersserved in East Africa.[13]The 26th (Service) Battalion was recruited from the banking community; it saw action on the Western Front.[13]The 32nd (Service) Battalion, which was recruited from the citizens ofEast Ham, also landed in France and saw action on the Western Front.[13]The 38th through 42nd Battalions of the regiment served as theJewish Legion[19]in Palestine; many of its members went on to be part of the founding of the State of Israel in 1948.[13]TheRoyal Fusiliers War Memorial, stands onHigh Holborn, nearChancery Lane tube station, surmounted by the lifesize statue of a First World War soldier, and its regimental chapel is atSt Sepulchre-without-Newgate.[20]Second World War[edit]During theSecond World War, the 1st Battalion was part of the17th Indian Infantry Brigadefor the majority of the war and they were attached to the8th Indian Infantry Divisionand served with them in theItalian Campaign.[21]The 2nd Battalion was attached to the12th Infantry Brigade,4th Infantry Divisionand was sent to France in 1939 after the outbreak of war to join theBritish Expeditionary Force. In May 1940 they fought in theBattle of Franceand were forced toretreat to Dunkirkwhere they were thenevacuated from France. With the brigade and division, the battalion spent the next two years in the United Kingdom, before being sent overseas to fight in theTunisia Campaign, part of the final stages of theNorth African Campaign. Alongside the 1st, 8th and 9th battalions, the 2nd Battalion also saw active service in theItalian Campaignfrom March 1944, in particular during theBattle of Monte Cassino, fighting later on theGothic Linebefore being airlifted to fight in theGreek Civil War.[22]The 8th and 9th battalions, the twoTerritorial Armyunits, were part of the1st London Infantry Brigade, attached to1st London Infantry Division. These later became the167th (London) Infantry Brigadeand56th (London) Infantry Division. Both battalions saw service in the final stages of the Tunisia Campaign, where each suffered over 100 casualties. In September 1943 both battalions were heavily involved in thelandings at Salerno, as part of theAllied invasion of Italy, later crossing theVolturno Line, before, in December, being held up at theWinter Line.[23]Two other Territorial battalions, the 11th and 12th, were both raised in 1939 when the Territorial Army was ordered to be doubled in size. Both were assigned to4th London Infantry Brigade, part of2nd London Infantry Division, later140th (London) Infantry Brigadeand47th (London) Infantry Divisionrespectively.[24]Both battalions remained in the United Kingdom on home defence duties. In 1943, the 12th Battalion was transferred to the80th Infantry (Reserve) Divisionand later to the 47th Infantry (Reserve) Division.[25]The regiment raised many other battalions during the war, although none of them saw active service overseas in their original roles, instead some were converted to other roles. The 21st Battalion, for example, formed soon after theDunkirk evacuation, was sent toIndiain the summer of 1942 and later became part of the52nd Infantry Brigade, acting in a training capacity in order to train British troops injungle warfarefor service in theBurma Campaign. The 23rd Battalion, also created in June/July 1940, was later converted into46th Battalion,Reconnaissance Corps, assigned to the46th Infantry Division, serving with it for the rest of the war.[26]Post 1945[edit]In August 1952 the regiment, now reduced to a single Regular battalion, entered theKorean War. On 23 April 1968 the regiment was amalgamated with theRoyal Northumberland Fusiliers(5th Foot), theRoyal Warwickshire Fusiliers(6th Foot) and theLancashire Fusiliers(20th Foot) to form the 3rd Battalion,Royal Regiment of Fusiliers.[27]Fusiliers Museum[edit]Royal Fusiliers Regimental Museum, August 2014TheFusilier Museumis located in the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers Headquarters at HMTower of London.[28]Battle honours[edit]The Garden of Remembrance at St Sepulchre\'s Church was originally meant as a memorial to Fusiliers killed in the two World Wars but is now dedicated to all Fusiliers killed in action since 1914The regiment\'s battle honours included:[29]· Earlier Wars: Namur 1695, Martinique 1809, Talavera, Busaco, Albuhera, Badajoz, Salamanca, Vittoria, Pyrenees, Orthes, Toulouse, Peninsula, Alma, Inkerman, Sevastopol, Kandahar 1880, Afghanistan 1879–80, Relief of Ladysmith, South Africa 1899–1902· The First World War (47 battalions): Mons, Le Cateau, Retreat from Mons, Marne 1914, Aisne 1914, La Bassée 1914, Messines 1914 \'17, Armentières 1914, Ypres 1914 \'15 \'17 \'18, Nonne Bosschen, Gravenstafel, St. Julien, Frezenberg, Bellewaarde, Hooge 1915, Loos, Somme 1916 \'18, Albert 1916 \'18, Bazentin, Delville Wood, Pozières, Flers-Courcelette, Thiepval, Le Transloy, Ancre Heights, Ancre 1916 \'18, Arras 1917 \'18, Vimy 1917, Scarpe 1917, Arleux, Pilckem, Langemarck 1917, Menin Road, Polygon Wood, Broodseinde, Poelcappelle, Passchendaele, Cambrai 1917 \'18, St. Quentin, Bapaume 1918, Rosières, Avre, Villers Bretonneux, Lys, Estaires, Hazebrouck, Béthune, Amiens, Drocourt-Quéant, Hindenburg Line, Havrincourt, Épéhy, Canal du Nord, St. Quentin Canal, Beaurevoir, Courtrai, Selle, Sambre, France and Flanders 1914–18, Italy 1917–18, Struma, Macedonia 1915–18, Helles, Landing at Helles, Krithia, Suvla, Scimitar Hill, Gallipoli 1915–16, Egypt 1916, Megiddo, Nablus, Palestine 1918, Troitsa, Archangel 1919, Kilimanjaro, Behobeho, Nyangao, East Africa 1915–17· The Second World War: Dunkirk 1940, North-West Europe 1940, Agordat, Keren, Syria 1941, Sidi Barrani, Djebel Tebaga, Peter\'s Corner, North Africa 1940 \'43, Sangro, Mozzagrogna, Caldari, Salerno, St. Lucia, Battipaglia, Teano, Monte Camino, Garigliano Crossing, Damiano, Anzio, Cassino II, Ripa Ridge, Gabbiano, Advance to Florence, Monte Scalari, Gothic Line, Coriano, Croce, Casa Fortis, Savio Bridgehead, Valli di Commacchio, Senio, Argenta Gap, Italy 1943–45, Athens, Greece 1944–45· Korea have included:[29]· 1900–1937: HM KingGeorge V· 1937–1942: HRHPrince George, Duke of KentColonels[edit]TheRoyal Fusiliers War MemorialonHolborn, a memorial to Royal Fusiliers killed in both the First and Second World Wars.The colonels of the regiment included:[30]· 1685–1689: Lieutenant-GeneralGeorge Legge, 1st Baron Dartmouth· 1689–1692: GeneralJohn Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough· January–July 1692 Field MarshalGeorge Hamilton, 1st Earl of Orkney· 1692–1696: Brigadier-GeneralEdward Fitzpatrick· 1696–1713: GeneralCharles O\'Hara, 1st Baron Tyrawley· 1713–1739: Field MarshalJames O\'Hara, 2nd Baron Tyrawley· 1739–1751: Lieutenant-GeneralWilliam Hargrave· 1751–1754: GeneralJohn Mostyn· 1754–1776:Lord Robert Bertie· 1776–1788: Lieutenant-GeneralRichard Prescott· 1788–1789: GeneralWilliam Gordon· 1789–1801: Field MarshalPrince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn· 1801–1832: Field MarshalSir Alured Clarke· 1832–1854: Field MarshalSir Edward Blakeney· 1854–1855: GeneralSir George Brown· 1855–1868: GeneralSir Samuel Auchmuty[31]· 1868–1881: GeneralSir Richard Airey[32]· 1881–1900: GeneralSir Richard Wilbraham· 1900–1922: Major-GeneralSir Geoffrey Barton· 1922–1924: Major-GeneralColin Donald· 1924–1933: Major-GeneralSir Reginald Pinney· 1933–1942: Major-GeneralWalter Hill· July–October 1942 BrigadierReginald Howlett· 1942–1947: GeneralSir Reginald May· 1947–1954: Major-GeneralJames Francis Harter· 1954–1963: Major-GeneralFrancis David Rome· 1963–1974: GeneralSir Kenneth DarlingVictoria Cross[edit]Victoria Crosses awarded to members of the regiment were:· PrivateThomas Elsdon Ashford,Second Afghan War(16 August 1880)· LieutenantMaurice Dease,First World War(23 August 1914)· Temp. Lieutenant-ColonelNeville Elliott-Cooper, First World War (30 November 1917)· CaptainCharles Fitzclarence,Second Boer War(14 October 1899)· Assistant SurgeonThomas Egerton Hale,Crimean War(8 September 1855)· LieutenantWilliam Hope, Crimean War (18 June 1855)· PrivateMathew Hughes, Crimean War (7 June 1855 and 18 June 1855)· CaptainHenry Mitchell Jones, Crimean War (7 June 1855)· Temp. CaptainRobert Gee, First World War (30 November 1917)· PrivateSidney Frank Godley, First World War (23 August 1914)· CorporalGeorge Jarratt, First World War (3 May 1917)· SergeantJohn Molyneux, First World War (9 October 1917)· PrivateWilliam Norman, Crimean War (19 December 1854)· Lance-SergeantFrederick William Palmer, First World War (16/17 February 1917)· SergeantSamuel George Pearse,North Russia Relief Force(29 August 1919)· Lance-CorporalCharles Graham Robertson, First World War (8/9 March 1918)· Acting CaptainWalter Napleton Stone, First World War (30 November 1917)· CorporalArthur Percy Sullivan, North Russia Relief Force (10 August 1919)Ze\'ev Jabotinsky,MBE(Hebrew:זאב ז\'בוטינסקיZe\'ev Zhabotinski; bornVladimir Yevgenyevich Zhabotinsky,Russian:Влади́мир Евге́ньевич Жаботи́нский; 18 October 1880,Odessa– 4 August 1940,Hunter, New York), was a Russian JewishRevisionist Zionistleader, author, poet, orator, soldier and founder of the Jewish Self-Defense Organization inOdessa. WithJoseph Trumpeldor, he co-founded theJewish Legion[2]of the British army inWorld War I. Later he established several militant Jewish organizations in Palestine, includingBeitar,HaTzoharand theIrgun.Contents[hide]· 1Family and early career· 2Zionist activism in Russia· 3Military career· 4Jewish self-defense in Palestine· 5Founder of the Revisionist movement· 6Literary activity· 7Return to Palestine blocked by the British· 8Evacuation plan for the Jews of Poland, Hungary and Romania· 9Plan for a revolt against the British· 10Integrated state with Arabs· 11Death· 12Legacy and honors· 13Quotes· 14Bibliography· 15See also· 16References· 17Further reading· 18External linksFamily and early career[edit]This sectionneeds additional citations forverification.Please helpimprove this articlebyadding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.(November 2014)(Learn how and when to remove this template message)Jabotinsky and his familyJabotinsky was born Vladimir Yevgenyevich (Yevnovich) Zhabotinsky[3]inOdessa,[1]Russian Empire(modernUkraine) into an assimilated Jewish family. His father, Yevno (Yevgeniy Grigoryevich) Zhabotinsky, hailed fromNikopol, Ukraine. He was a member of the Russian Society of Sailing and Trade and was primarily involved in wheat trading. His mother, Chava (Eva Markovna) Zach (1835–1926), came fromBerdychiv. Jabotinsky\'s older brother (Myron) died in childhood. His sister, Tereza (Tamara Yevgenyevna) Zhabotinskaya-Kopp, founded a private, femalesecondary schoolin Odessa. In 1885 the family moved to Germany due to his father\'s illness, returning a year later after his father\'s death.Raised in a Jewish middle-class home, Jabotinsky was educated in Russian schools. Although he studied Hebrew as a child, he wrote in his autobiography that his upbringing was divorced fromJewish faithand tradition. Chava Zhabotinskaya opened a store in Odessa selling stationery, and enrolled young Vladimir in the city\'sgymnasium. Jabotinsky did not finish school, having become involved in journalism.[citation needed]In 1896 he began writing articles for a major local Russian newspaper, theOdessa Leaflet, and was sent to Italy and Switzerland as a correspondent. He also worked with theOdessa News. Jabotinsky was a childhood friend of Russian journalist and poetKorney Chukovsky, and attended Chukovsky\'s 1903 wedding to Maria Goldfeld.[citation needed]Jabotinsky wrote under the pseudonym\"Altalena\"(\"swing\" in Italian).[4]His dispatches from Italy earned him recognition as an up-and-coming Russian-language journalist.[4]He was a student at theSapienza University of Romelaw school, but did not graduate. In the summer of 1901 he returned to Odessa and began working as a journalist at the newspaperOdessa\'s News(Russian:Одесские новости).[4]Later he edited newspapers in Russian andHebrew.He married Yohana Galperina in October 1907.[4]They had one child,Eri Jabotinsky, who later became a member of theIrgun-inspiredBergson Group.Eri Jabotinsky briefly served in the 1st Knesset of Israel; he died on June 6, 1969.Zionist activism in Russia[edit]Prior to theKishinev pogromof 1903, Jabotinsky joined the Zionist movement, where he soon became known as a powerful speaker and an influential leader.[5]With more pogroms looming on the horizon, he established the Jewish Self-Defense Organization, a Jewish militant group, to safeguard Jewish communities throughout Russia. He became the source of great controversy in the Russian Jewish community as a result of these actions.Around this time, he began learningmodern Hebrew, and took a Hebrew name:VladimirbecameZe\'ev(\"wolf\"). During the pogroms, he organized self-defense units inJewishcommunities across Russia and fought for thecivil rightsof the Jewish population as a whole. His slogan was, \"Better to have a gun and not need it than to need it and not have it!\" Another slogan was, \"Jewish youth, learn to shoot!\"In 1903, he was elected as a Russian delegate to the SixthZionist Congressin Basel, Switzerland. AfterTheodore Herzl\'s death in 1904, he became the leader of the right-wing Zionists. That year he moved toSaint Petersburgand became one of the co-editors for the Russophone magazineYevreiskaya Zhyzn(Jewish Life), which after 1907 became the official publishing body of the Zionist movement in Russia. In the pages of the newspaper, Jabotinsky wrote fierce polemics against supporters of assimilation and theBund.In 1905, he was one of the co-founders of the \"Union for Rights Equality of Jewish People in Russia\". The following year, he was one of the chief speakers at the 3rd All-Russian Conference of Zionists inHelsinki(Helsingfors), which called upon the Jews of Europe to engage inGegenwartsarbeit(work in the present) and to join together to demand autonomy for ethnic minorities in Russia.[6]This liberal approach was later apparent in his position concerning the Arab citizens of the future Jewish State: Jabotinsky asserted that \"Each one of the ethnic communities will be recognized as autonomous and equal in the eyes of the law.\"[6]In 1909, he fiercely criticized leading members of the Russian Jewish community for participating in ceremonies marking the centennial of the Russian writerNikolai Gogol. In the light of Gogol\'s anti-Semitic views, Jabotinsky claimed it was unseemly for Russian Jews to take part in these ceremonies, as it showed they had no Jewish self-respect.[citation needed]Military career[edit]Lt Jabotinsky in uniform of 38thRFMiniatures of theMBE,British War MedalandVictory Medalawarded to JabotinskyDuring World War I, he had the idea of establishing a Jewish Legion to fight alongside the British against theOttomanswho then controlledPalestine. In 1915, together withJoseph Trumpeldor, a one-armed veteran of theRusso-Japanese War, he created theZion Mule Corps, which consisted of several hundred Jewish men, mainly Russians who had been exiled from Palestine by theOttoman Empireand had settled inEgypt. The unit served with distinction in theBattle of Gallipoli. When the Zion Mule Corps was disbanded, Jabotinsky traveled to London, where he continued his efforts to establish Jewish units to fight in Palestine as part of theBritish Army. Although Jabotinsky did not serve with the Zion Mule Corps, Trumpeldor, Jabotinsky and 120 Zion Mule Corps members did serve in Platoon 16 of the20th Battalionof theLondon Regiment. In 1917, the government agreed to establish three Jewish battalions, initiating theJewish Legion.As an honorary lieutenant in the 38thRoyal Fusiliers, Jabotinsky saw action in Palestine in 1918.[7]His battalion was one of the first to enter Transjordan.[7]He was demobilised in September 1919,[8]soon after he complained toField Marshal Allenbyabout the British Army\'s attitude towards Zionism and the Jewish Legion.[9]His appeals to the British government failed to reverse the decision, but in December 1919[10]he was appointed a Member of theOrder of the British Empire(MBE) for his service.[11]Jewish self-defense in Palestine[edit]After Ze\'ev Jabotinsky was discharged from the British Army in September 1919, he openly trained Jews in warfare and the use of small arms. On 6 April 1920, during the1920 Palestine riots, the British searched the offices and apartments of the Zionist leadership, including the home ofChaim Weizmann, for arms. In a building used by Jabotinsky\'s defense forces, they found three rifles, two pistols, and 250 rounds of ammunition.Nineteen men were arrested. The next day, Jabotinsky protested to the police that he was their commander and therefore solely responsible, so they should be released. Instead, he was arrested and joined them in jail. The nineteen were sentenced to three years in prison and Jabotinsky was given a 15-year prison term for possession of weapons. In July, a general pardon was granted to Jews and Arabs convicted in the rioting.[12]A committee of inquiry placed responsibility for the riots on theZionist Commission, alleging that they provoked the Arabs. The court blamed \"Bolshevism\" claiming that it \"flowed in Zionism\'s inner heart\", and ironically identified the fiercely anti-socialist Jabotinsky with the socialist-alignedPoalei Zion(\'Zionist Workers\') party, which it called \'a definite Bolshevist institution.\'[13]Founder of the Revisionist movement[edit]In 1920, Jabotinsky was elected to the firstAssembly of Representativesin Palestine. The following year he was elected to the executive council of theZionist Organization. He was also a founder of the newly registeredKeren haYesodand served as its director of propaganda.[14]He left the mainstream Zionist movement in 1923, however, due to differences of opinion between him and its chairman,Chaim Weizmann, and established a newrevisionistparty calledAlliance of Revisionists-Zionistsand itsyouth movement,Betar(a Hebrew acronym for the \"League of Joseph Trumpeldor\").His new party demanded that the mainstream Zionist movement recognize as its stated objective the establishment of a Jewish state on both banks of theJordan River. His main goal was to establish a modern Jewish state with the help of the British Empire. His philosophy contrasted with that of the socialist orientedLabor Zionists, in that it focused its economic and social policy on the ideals of the Jewish middle class in Europe. His ideal for a Jewish state was a form of nation state based loosely on the British imperial model.[15]His support base was mostly located in Poland, and his activities focused on attaining British support to help with the development of theYishuv. Another area of major support for Jabotinsky wasLatvia, where his speeches in Russian made an impression on the largely Russian-speaking Latvian Jewish community.Jabotinsky was both anationalistand aliberal democrat. Despite his attachment to nationalism, he did not embrace authoritarian notions of state authority and its imposition on individual liberty; he said that \"Every man is a king.\" He championed the notion of afree pressand believed the new Jewish state would protect the rights and interests of minorities. As aneconomic liberal, he supported a free market with minimal government intervention, but also believed that the \"\'elementary necessities\' of the average person...: food, shelter, clothing, the opportunity to educate his children, and medical aid in case of illness\" should be supplied by the state.[16]Literary activity[edit]From 1923, Jabotinsky was editor of the revived Jewish weeklyRassvet(Dawn), published first in Berlin, then in Paris. Besides his journalistic work, he published novels under his previous pseudonym Altalena; his historical novelSamson Nazorei(Samson theNazirite, 1927), set in Biblical times, describes Jabotinsky\'s ideal of an active, daring, warrior form of Jewish life. His novelPyatero(The Five, written 1935, published 1936) has been described as \"a work that probably has the truest claim to being the great Odessa novel... It contains poetic descriptions of early-twentieth-century Odessa, with nostalgia-tinged portraits of its streets and smells, its characters and passions.\"[17]Although it was little noticed at the time, it has received renewed appreciation for its literary qualities at the start of the twenty-first century, being reprinted in Russia and Ukraine and in 2005 translated into English (the first translation into a Western language).[18]Return to Palestine blocked by the British[edit]Ze\'ev Jabotinsky duringWorldWarIIn 1930, while he was visiting South Africa, he was informed by the British Colonial Office that he would not be allowed to return to Palestine.[19]Evacuation plan for the Jews of Poland, Hungary and Romania[edit]During the 1930s, Jabotinsky was deeply concerned with the situation of theJewish community in Eastern Europe. In 1936, Jabotinsky prepared the so-called \"evacuation plan\", which called for the evacuation of the entire Jewish population ofPoland,HungaryandRomaniato Palestine.The same year he toured Eastern Europe, meeting with the Polish Foreign Minister, ColonelJózef Beck; the Regent ofHungary, AdmiralMiklós Horthy; and Prime MinisterGheorghe TătărescuofRomaniato discuss the evacuation plan. The plan gained the approval of all three governments, but caused considerable controversy within theJewish community of Poland, on the grounds that it played into the hands of anti-Semites. In particular, the fact that the \'evacuation plan\' had the approval of the Polish government was taken by many Polish Jews as indicating Jabotinsky had gained the endorsement of what they considered to be the wrong people.The evacuation ofJewish communities in Poland,HungaryandRomaniawas to take place over a ten-year period. However, the British government vetoed it, and theWorld Zionist Organization\'s chairman,Chaim Weizmann, dismissed it. Two years later, in 1938, Jabotinsky stated in a speech that Polish Jews were \"living on the edge of the volcano\", and warned that a wave ofpogromswould happen in Poland sometime in the near future. Jabotinsky went on to warn Jews in Europe that they should leave for Palestine as soon as possible. There is much discussion about whether or not Jabotinsky actually predicted the Holocaust. In his writings and public appearances he warned against the dangers of an outbreak of violence against the Jewish population of Central and Eastern Europe. However, as late as August 1939, he was certain that war would be averted.[20]Plan for a revolt against the British[edit]In 1939, Britain enacted theMacDonald White Paper, in which Jewish immigration to Palestine under the British Mandate was to be restricted to 75,000 for the next five years, after which further Jewish immigration would depend on Arab consent. In addition, land sales to Jews were to be restricted, and Palestine would be cultivated for independence as a binational state.Jabotinsky reacted by proposing a plan for an armed Jewish revolt in Palestine. He sent the plan to theIrgunHigh Command in six coded letters. Jabotinsky proposed that he and other \"illegals\" would arrive by boat in the heart of Palestine – preferablyTel Aviv– in October 1939. The Irgun would ensure that they successfully landed and escaped, by whatever means necessary. They would then occupy key centers of British power in Palestine, chief among them Government House in Jerusalem, raise the Jewish national Flag, and fend off the British for at least 24 hours whatever the cost. Zionist leaders in Western Europe and the United States would then declare an independent Jewish state, and would function as a provisional government-in-exile. Although Irgun commanders were impressed by the plan, they were concerned over the heavy losses they would doubtless incur in carrying it out.Avraham Sternproposed simultaneously landing 40,000 armed young immigrants in Palestine to help launch the uprising. The Polish government supported his plan, and it began training Irgun members and supplying them arms. Irgun submitted the plan for the approval of its commanderDavid Raziel, who was imprisoned by the British. However, the beginning ofWorld War IIin September 1939 quickly put an end to these plans.[21][22]Integrated state with Arabs[edit]According to the historianBenny Morris, documents show that Jabotinsky favored the idea of the transfer of Arab populations if required for establishing a (still-proposed) Jewish state.[23]Jabotinsky\'s other writings state, \"We do not want to eject even one Arab from either the left or the right bank of the Jordan River. We want them to prosper both economically and culturally. We envision the regime of Jewish Palestine [Eretz Israel ha-Ivri] as follows: most of the population will be Jewish, but equal rights for all Arab citizens will not only be guaranteed, they will also be fulfilled.\"[16]Jabotinsky was convinced that there was no way for the Jews to regain any part of Palestine without opposition from the Arabs. In 1934, he wrote a draft constitution for the Jewish state which declared that Arabs would be on an equal footing with their Jewish counterparts \"throughout all sectors of the country\'s public life.\" The two communities would share the state\'s duties, both military and civil service, and enjoy its prerogatives. Jabotinsky proposed that Hebrew and Arabic should enjoy equal status, and that \"in every cabinet where the prime minister is a Jew, the vice-premiership shall be offered to an Arab and vice versa.\"[24]Death[edit]Grave of Jabotinsky,Mount Herzl,JerusalemWhile in New York to build support within the United States for a Jewish Army,[25]Jabotinsky died of a heart attack on 4 August 1940 while visiting a Jewish self-defense camp run byBetar.[26]He was buried in New Montefiore Cemetery in New York in accordance with a clause of his will. A monument to Jabotinsky was erected at his original burial site in New York.[27]In 1964 the remains of Jabotinsky and his wife, in accordance with a second clause of his will, were reburied in Mount Herzl Cemetery in Jerusalem by order of Prime MinisterLevi Eshkol.Legacy and honors[edit]Jabotinsky House at King George V St. inTel Aviv. The building is also known as \"Ze\'ev\'s Stronghold\", and is named after Ze\'ev Jabotinsky. It used to be the center of theHerutParty, and is now the central institute of theLikudParty.Uniforms and military decorations of Ze\'ev Jabotinsky at the Jabotinsky Institute and Museum· Ze\'ev Jabotinsky\'s legacy was carried on by Israel\'sHerutparty, which merged with other right wing parties to form theLikudParty in 1973. Likud has since acted as Israel\'s main right-wing party, and has been part of most Israeli governments since 1977. His legacy has also been honored to a smaller extent byHerut – The National Movement(a breakaway from Likud),Magshimey Herut(young adult activist movement) andBetar(youth movement). In the United States, his call for Jewish self-defense has led to the formation ofAmericans for a Safe Israeland theJewish Defense Organization. The JDO\'s training camp is named Camp Jabotinsky.· In Israel, 57 streets, parks and squares are named after Jabotinsky, more than for any other person in Jewish or Israeli history. making him the most-commemorated historical figure in Israel.[28]· TheJabotinsky Medalis awarded for distinguished service to the State of Israel.· TheJabotinsky Institute, in Tel Aviv, is a repository of documents and research relating to the history of Betar, the Revisionist movement, the Irgun, and Herut.[29]It is identified with Likud.[30]Quotes[edit]· Our habit of constantly and zealously answering to any rabble has already done us a lot of harm and will do much more. ... We do not have to apologize for anything. We are a people as all other peoples; we do not have any intentions to be better than the rest. As one of the first conditions for equality we demand the right to have our own villains, exactly as other people have them. ... We do not have to account to anybody, we are not to sit for anybody\'s examination and nobody is old enough to call on us to answer. We came before them and will leave after them. We are what we are, we are good for ourselves, we will not change, nor do we want to.(FromInstead of Excessive Apology, 1911).[31]· \"Eliminate theDiaspora, or the Diaspora will surely eliminate you.\" (From \"Tisha B\'av 1937\").[32]· A Jew brought up among Germans may assume German custom, German words. He may be wholly imbued with that German fluid but the nucleus of his spiritual structure will always remain Jewish, because his blood, his body, his physical-racial type are Jewish. ... It is impossible for a man to become assimilated with people whose blood is different from his own. In order to become assimilated, he must change his body, he must become one of them, in blood. ... There can be no assimilation as long as there is no mixed marriage. ... An increase in the number of mixed marriages is the only sure and infallible means for the destruction of nationality as such. ... A preservation of national integrity is impossible except by a preservation of racial purity, and for that purpose we are in need of a territory of our own where our people will constitute the overwhelming majority.[33]Bibliography[edit]· Turkey and the War, London, T.F. Unwin, Ltd. [1917]· Samson the Nazarite, London, M. Secker, [1930]· The Jewish War Front, London, T.F. Unwin, Ltd. [1940]· The War and The Jew, New York,The Dial Press[c1942]· The Story of the Jewish Legion, New York, B. Ackerman, Inc. [c1945]· The Battle for Jerusalem. Vladimir Jabotinsky,John Henry Patterson,Josiah Wedgwood,Pierre van Paassenexplains why a Jewish army is indispensable for the survival of a Jewish nation and preservation of world civilization,American Friends of a Jewish Palestine, New York, The Friends, [1941]· A Pocket Edition of Several Stories, Mostly Reactionary, Tel-Aviv: Reproduced by Jabotinsky Institute in Israel, [1984]. Reprint. Originally published: Paris, [1925]· The Five, A Novel of Jewish Life in Turn-of-the-Century Odessa,Paris, [1936]· Jabotinsky translatedEdgar Allan Poe\'s \"The Raven\" into Hebrew and Russian, and parts ofDante\'sDivine Comedyinto modern Hebrew verse.· \"The East Bank of the Jordan\" (also known as \"Two Banks has the Jordan\"), a poem by Jabotinsky that became the slogan and one of the most famous songs ofBetar· Vladimir Jabotinsky’sStory of My Life, Brian Horowitz & Leonid Katsis, eds., Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2015.See also[edit]· Altalena Affair· Itamar Ben-Avi· 1929 Hebron massacre· Iron Wall (essay)TheBetar Movement(בית\"ר, also spelledBeitaror, early in its history,Bitar) is aRevisionistZionist youth movementfounded in 1923 inRiga,Latvia, byVladimir (Ze\'ev) Jabotinsky. Chapters sprang up across Europe, even during World War II. After the war and during the settlement of what becameIsrael, Betar was traditionally linked to the originalHerutand thenLikudpolitical parties of Jewish pioneers. It was closely affiliated with the pre-Israel Revisionist Zionist splinter groupIrgun Zevai Leumi. It was one of many right-wing movements and youth groups arising at that time that adopted salutes and uniforms.[1]Some of the most prominent politicians of Israel were Betarim in their youth, most notably prime ministersYitzhak ShamirandMenachem Begin, an admirer of Jabotinsky.[2]Today, Betar promotes Jewish leadership on university campuses as well as in local communities.[3]Its history of empowering Jewish youth dates back to before the State of Israel. Throughout World War II, Betar was a major source of recruits for both the Jewish regiments that fought the Nazis alongside the British and the Jewish forces that waged an ongoing guerrilla war against the British in Palestine. Across Europe, Betar militia played major roles in independently resisting Nazi forces and other various assaults on Jewish communities.Contents[hide]· 1History· 2Regional activitieso 2.1Israelo 2.2Canadao 2.3United Stateso 2.4United Kingdomo 2.5Australiao 2.6South Africa· 3See also· 4References· 5External linksHistory[edit]Ze\'ev Jabotinsky, the founder and first leader of Betar, shown here in Betar uniform.Betar was founded byZe\'ev Jabotinskyat a meeting of Jewish youth in Riga, Latvia, arranged by Aaron Propes in 1923. Jabotinsky spoke of the Arab attacks on the settlement of Tel Hai and other Jewish settlements in the Galilee. He believed that these incidents, indicative of serious threats to the Jewish Palestinians, could only be addressed by the recreation of the ancient Jewish state of Israel, extending across the entirety of both Palestine and Jordan. This is the defining philosophy of Revisionist Zionism.[4]Jabotinsky proposed creating Betar to foster a new generation of Jews thoroughly indoctrinated in these nationalist ideals and trained for military action against all enemies of Judaism. In 1931, Jabotinsky was elected asrosh Betar(\"head of Betar\") at the first world conference in Danzig.[5]Joseph Trumpeldor, the leader of the Jewish settlers who were killed at Tel Hai in 1920, serves as the primary role model of the Betar. A disabled man with only one arm, he led his people in the futile defense of the settlement and died with the words, \"Never mind, it is good to die for our country\" (Hebrew: \"אין דבר ,טוב למות בעד ארצנו\"). This was particularly significant given that the Jews did not yet have a country: Trumpeldor was referring to sacrificing one\'s life in order to further the establishment of an independent Jewish state. The words ofShir Betar(\"The Betar Song\"), written by Jabotinsky, include a line that quotes Trumpeldor\'s last words to \"never mind\". As the song expresses, Betar youth were to be as \"proud, generous, and fierce [alternately translated as \'cruel\'[6]]\" as Trumpeldor, and as ready to sacrifice themselves for Israel.The nameBetarבית\"ר refers to both the lastJewish fortto fall in theBar Kokhba revolt(136 AD) and to the altered Hebrew name of \"BritYosefTrumpeldor\" ( ברית יוסף תרומפלדור ). Although Trumpeldor\'s name is properly spelt withtet(ט), it was written withtaf(ת) so as to produce the acronym.[7]Vladimir Jabotinsky in the company of Betar commanders, PalestineDespite resistance from both Zionist and non-Zionist Jews, Betar quickly gained a large following in Poland, Palestine, Latvia, Lithuania, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Germany, and elsewhere. It was particularly successful in Poland, which had the largest Jewish population in Europe at the time.In 1934, Poland was home to 40,000 of Betar\'s 70,000 members.[8]Routine Betar activities in Warsaw included military drilling, instruction in Hebrew, and encouragement to learn English. Militia groups organized by Betar Poland helped to defend against attacks by the anti-SemiticONR.[9]The interwar Polish government helped Betar with military training,[10]whose members admired the Polish nationalist camp and imitated some of its aspects[11]The group initially praised Mussolini for his anti-communism and fascist principles, leading it to adopt the black uniform shirt of Italian fascism for a short period. Mussolini\'sinvasion of Abyssinia, however, was seen as \"cowardly\" by Betar and they broke with him shortly after.[12]Betar formation in BerlinThroughout the 1930s and early 1940s, Betar aided the widespread immigration of Jews to Palestine in violation of theBritish Mandate\'simmigration quotas, which had not been increased despite the surge of refugees from theNazi persecution and murder of Jews. In total, Betar was responsible for the entrance of over 40,000 Jews into Palestine under such restrictions.[13]DuringWorld War II, Betar members, including former Polish Army officers, foundedŻydowski Związek Wojskowy(literally \"Jewish Military Union\"), which fought in theWarsaw Ghetto Uprising. Mordechai Anielewicz, the head of the other major uprising group, Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa (ZOB, lit. \"Jewish Combat Organization\"), also gained his military training in Betar. He was the secretary of the prominent Betar Warsaw organization in 1938. He left it to join and quickly take leadership of the left-wing ZionistHashomer Hatzairgroup in Warsaw.In the summer of 1941, Julek (Joel/Jakób) Brandt, a Betar leader fromChorzówwho was a relative of Samuel Brandt, the chairman of the HrubieszówJudenrat(Jewish Council), arranged for several hundred Betar members from the Warsaw Ghetto to work on local farms and estates, including one in Dłużniów and Werbkowice. Most of the Betar youth were killed in the spring of 1942 and in subsequent months, together with the local Jewish population. A small number, however, returned to the ghetto and later took part in the Warsaw Ghetto uprising in the ranks of the ŻZW. Brandt escaped from a transport heading for the death camp at Sobibor. He was denounced by local peasants who turned him over to the Gestapo in Hrubieszów. There, he was put to work by Gestapo Obersturmbannführer Ebner, who named him chief of a small work camp. At the end of 1942 or the beginning of 1943, Ebner shot and killed him.[14]Jewish fighters under the leadership ofJosef Glazman, head of Betar Lithuania, battled the Nazis alongside the Lithuanian partisans in the forests outside Vilnius; anti-Nazi partisans in most other nations, however, were unwilling to fight alongside Betar.The Song Of The Partisans, an anthem traditionally sung by Holocaust survivors onYom HaShoah, was written in memory of and dedication to Glazman.In 1938,David Razielbecame the head of both Betar and theIrgun Zevai Leumi, AKA Etzel, AKA the National Military Organisation. The Irgun\'s anthem was the third and final verse of the Betar song. Raziel died shortly into World War II, while taking part in Iraq in a failed British sabotage mission against German interests.The tactics of the Irgun-Betar coalition against Palestinian Arabs demonstrated the overall Zionist and Israeli strategy of overwhelming retaliation. Throughout most of the 1930s and 40\'s, the two organizations typically bombed collections of Arab civilians in response to any attack of any kind on any Palestinian Jews. The Irgun worked closely with Betar in Palestine and worldwide, particularly with respect to illegal immigration into Palestine, but they remained organizationally and structurally separate. As British policy and Jewish needs/demands grew more opposed, Betar and the Irgun stepped up their military campaign against the British, based primarily onguerrillatactics of sabotage and assassination.Flags of the Betar youth movement permanently displayed at theJabotinsky InstituteinTel Aviv.With the outbreak of World War II, Raziel and Jabotinsky declared an unconditional ceasefire against the British, as Britain and the Zionists had a common enemy in Germany. Raziel\'s second-in-command, Abraham \"Yair\" Stern, broke away and formed the Stern Group, later renamedLEHI(Lohamei Herut Yisrael, lit. \"Freedom Fighters For Israel\"). It continued to attack British targets. Radical elements of Betar joined LEHI but most stayed with the Irgun.[citation needed]Future Israeli Prime MinisterMenachem Begin, who had headed Betar Poland prior to WWII, reached Palestine at the war\'s end and took immediate control of both Betar Palestine and the Irgun. He led the two organizations in their contribution to the1948-49 warthat established the initial borders of the newly proclaimed state of Israel. Betar and the Irgun remained functionally intermingled, consistently sharing leadership and manpower. By contrast, theHaganah, the official defense organization of theJewish Agency, and its military wing the Palmach had practically no Betar members.Members of Betar were also instrumental in setting up Israel\'s navy, theIsraeli Sea Corps. The first Israeli plane was flown into Palestine by Jabotinsky\'s son, Ari, at the time a member of the Betar World Executive.Many of Israel\'s most prominent conservatives have been \"graduates\" of Betar, including former prime ministersMenachem Begin,Yitzhak Shamir, andEhud Olmert, as well as the current leader ofHatnuahTzipi Livni, and former Defense MinisterMoshe Arens.Yoel Hasson, nowKadimaMember of the Knesset, is a former national head of Betar in Israel.Since the 1970s, Betar has suffered a drastic decline in membership and activities. It remains much involved in Zionist activism, however.Tagar, Betar\'s young adult movement, was active on many university campuses throughoutNorth Americaduring the 1980s, as part of the Revisionist Zionist Association, and Betar played a major part in raising the awareness of Soviet oppression of Jews, and fighting for the right of Soviet Jews to emigrate to Israel. It remains relatively prominent inAustraliaand inCleveland,Ohio.Most recently, in 2014, Betar has organized marches and demonstrations inFrance, to protest the rise in Anti-Semitic incidents there, including attacks against synagogues and individual Jews. At those marches, Betar has displayed the emblem which was formerly used by theJewish Defense League(JDL).Regional activities[edit]Israel[edit]Once a vibrant movement tied to the oppositionHerutParty, Betar\'s following in Israel has declined since the 1970s due to a generally transformed political landscape. An important change has been the rise of religious conservatives in Israel. Though Betar had many of the same political goals as the rapidly growingGush Emunim(\"Bloc of the Faithful\") andBnei Akivayouth movements (tied to theNational Religious Party), they remained a secular movement. They did not join the latter organizations in their taking of the contestedWest BankandGaza territories. During the 1980s, as a result of the Camp David Accords negotiated byMenachem Begin(the leader ofHerutand its successor movementLikud), a similar effect occurred due to the rise of theSecular Right. The more extreme movements drew youth away from Betar.As the Likud party underBenjamin Netanyahumoved away from the traditional values ofRevisionist Zionism, Betar drew criticism from Israeli conservatives who identified as ideological purists. While Betar had consistently been a source of powerful political figures in Israel, its leaders were criticized for placing partisan political expediency above greater ideological priorities. In the late 1990s,Benny Beginbroke away from Likud to formHerut – The National Movement.Canada[edit]Betar Toronto currently focuses on opposing theIsraeli apartheid analogy. In February 2006 at theUniversity of Toronto, Tagar organized a \"KnowRadical IslamWeek\" featuring activistNonie Darwish, former Sudanese slaveSimon Deng, Dr.Salim Mansur(a Muslim activist speaking on gay rights in the Middle East), and presentations byHonest ReportingandPalestinian Media Watch.[15][16][17]The event was also co-sponsored by theToronto Secular Allianceand other allied groups. Betar has also worked in Toronto and Montreal with off-campus organizations, such as theCanadian Coalition for Democracies, to promote the importance of secular and participatory politics in Canada. In March 2007, Betar-Tagar at the University of Toronto changed its name to \'Zionists at U of T\'.Betar-Tagar was active in Montreal and Toronto during the 1980s Lebanon-Israel conflict. A revival of Betar occurred in Montreal on November 9, 2006, as an event entitled \"Taking Liberties: Terrorism in the West\". It featured keynote speaker Dr.Salim Mansurand was the first film screening ofObsession: Radical Islam\'s War Against the WestatMcGill University. It was co-organized with Conservative McGill students.[18][19]At McGill University in March 2007, Betar Montreal held a \"Radical Islam Awareness Week\" similar to the one at the University of Toronto the year before. Speakers includedDavid B. Harris, a Canadian lawyer and security specialist, and John Thompson of theMackenzie Institute. Concurrent with the 2007 Montreal program, Betar in Toronto held \"Freedom and Democracy Week\" at the University of Toronto. Speakers includedEzra Levant, co-founder of theWestern Standardnewspaper, andJonah Goldbergof theNational Review.[20]United States[edit]The first branch of Betar in the United States was founded in October 1929, led principally by Joseph Beder, William Katz, Haim Messer and Israel Posnansky. Beder had visited Palestine under the Mandate in the spring of 1929 and come in contact with Betar members there. The first activity of Betar USA was a Chanukah party alongside local branches which existed already in Eastern New York and the Lower East Side.When Soviet Russia imprisoned the ailing Dr. Michael Shtern because his sons were openly Zionist, a group of seven Betarim from New York City traveled to Russia and offered to exchange themselves for Shtern and serve his sentence in his stead. The Russian government refused their proposal and deported them. The group was led byFred Pierceand includedElie Yossefand Gilad Freund.Betar maintains a Shaliach in New York City and Cleveland, Ohio. The Cleveland chapter offers a fall and spring camp that is open to all cities. Betar offers summer and winter tours of Israel. It is one of the few movements that offer students a chance to visit the West Bank. Both programs allow students to spend time at Kedumin, Itamar, Alon Moreh, Sderot, East Jerusalem, and Hebron. They have officially adopted Kedumin as a sister city and spend an extensive time volunteering there. The winter tour is for college-age students and runs in late December.During the period of the early to mid 90s,Ronn Torossianserved as National President and increased Betar USA membership into the hundreds. Previous leadership in the U.S. included; Roey Urman, Glenn Mones, Barry Liben, Fred Pierce (early to mid 70s), and Benny Rosen (60s). In addition to its programs for younger students, Betar USA also has an affiliated program for college-age students called Tagar. Betar strongly promotes the emigration of American Jews to Israel.[21][22][23]Previous Shaliachs in the U.S. have included Sallai Meridor, former Israel Ambassador to the U.S. (late 1980s); Eli Cohen, former Israel Ambassador to Japan (early 1990s); Tova Vagimi; Sharon Tzur; Yitzhak Kerstein; Shlomo Ariav; and Shlomi Levy.United Kingdom[edit]Betar UK is an active group of over 150 members, headquartered in London. It is involved in Zionist activism including martial arts training, government lobbying, criticism of national media, and pro-Israel demonstrations. Anti-Zionist demonstrations and pickets used to occur every week outside the Marks & Spencer on Oxford Street before 2010 and Betar UK used to organized a counter-demonstration each week during that period until it lost its \'charity\' status for being political.Betar UK existed in the late 1930s but had ceased functioning when the state of Israel was established. The movement\'s revitalization began in 1974 with Eli Joseph with the assistance of Eric Graus and George Evnine. Yisrael Medad of the World Betar Movement arrived in the UK in 1975 and built a winter camp at Sherborne School in Dorset, a summer camp in north-west France, and a two-week summer camp in Israel. Branches were opened in various locations in Greater London and elsewhere. Educational and cultural activities were organized and demonstrations were held on the themes of Soviet Jewry and Jews in Arab lands as well as on local British issues. Betar used to share offices with the Herut Movement at 73, Compayne Gardens, London, at the \"Tel Chai House\" but since the sale of the property has regulat meetings at various locations throughout Stamford Hill and other Greater London areas although their website has not been updated for a number of years. Betar and Tagar UK still work closely with pro Israel political and lobbyiest groups and are currently looking for new headquarters in London.Australia[edit]BetarAustraliais an active movement with branches inMelbourne,SydneyandQueensland. Each of these branches organizes many activities, functions, and Jewish youth camps in each state. Betar Australia is a member of theAustralasian Zionist Youth Council(AZYC).Betar Australia was first established in Sydney in 1924 soon after its establishment in Latvia, but it floundered at some time in the 1920s or 1930s when its leadership moved to the British Mandate of Palestine. In 1948, Betar members from Harbin China and elsewhere reestablished Betar in Melbourne to help provide refuge for the many Jewish survivors of the Holocaust who remained without assistance. Betar later expanded to Sydney, Canberra, and Brisbane. The Queensland branch celebrated its 50th reunion in 2006.The largest Betar Australia snif (local organization) can be found in Sydney, on Australia\'s East Coast. Betar Sydney\'s maoz (home) had been located in Beit Herzl on Old South Head Road in theEastern Suburbssince the early 1980s, but it recently moved to a Jewish cultural center in Bondi Junction. The Sydney movement has experienced various periods of expansion and contraction, reaching its zenith in the early 1990s. During that time, winter camps regularly attracted over 220 chanichim (campers). Summer camps were also large, often held in conjunction with the rest of Betar Australia. Several federal camps were held during that time, including Jamboree inToowoomba, Queensland. Betar Australia also holds annual seminars for senior members as well as educational and training conventions for its senior leaders.Betar has been at the forefront of Jewish activism in Australia. Betar Australia began protesting Nazi supporters and sympathizers in 1952 when it released pigeons and stink bombs during one of the concerts of the allegedly pro-Nazi German pianist Walter Gieseking in Melbourne. The group battled neo-Nazi groups in the 1960s, and in the 1970s and 1980s, it spearheaded the protests of the Sydney Jewish community on behalf of Soviet Jewry. The group was instrumental in supporting the annual protest outside the Soviet Consulate in Trelawney Street,Woollahra, which occurred each Pesach, and has supported mass protests outside theBolshoi Balletand the Moscow Circus on Ice at the Sydney Entertainment Centre. It also protested Soviet Foreign MinisterEduard Shevardnadze\'s visit toCanberraand Sydney. In the 1970s, the group demonstrated against a visit of the General Union of Palestine Students to the Australian Union of Students after the latter had moved to the political left. In later years, Betar Australia took the initiative to organize community protests outside the Iraqi Embassy in Canberra during theFirst Gulf Warand outside the Iranian Embassy to protest Iranian state sponsorship of terrorism. The group also marched in front of the German Consulate in Sydney to protest what it perceived to be a resurgence of anti-Semitism in postwar Germany. In 2004, Betar Sydney was active in protesting Dr. Hanan Ashrawi\'s receiving of the Sydney Premier\'s peace prize.Australia Betarim very often emigrate to Israel and maintain close relations between the two nations. Betar Australia sends several members to Israel\'shasbarahprograms each year.South Africa[edit]Once the largest youth movement in the nation, Betar South Africa has since dwindled greatly. Headquartered in Johannesburg, the group hosts a 3-week summer camp each December and continues annual programs to send youth to Israel. Like Betar Australia, Betar South Africa sees many of its members permanently emigrate to Israel.See also[edit]· Irgun· Betar Naval Academy· Kadima· Likud· Revisionist Zionism· Ze\'ev Jabotinsky· Shir Betar· Zionist youth movement· Betar Jerusalem FC· Ronn Torossian· The East Bank of the Jordan(also known as \"Two Banks has the Jordan\"), a poem byZe\'ev Jabotinskythat became the slogan and one of the most famous songs of BetarTheIrgun(Hebrew:ארגון; full title:Hebrew:הארגון הצבאי הלאומי בארץ ישראלHā-ʾIrgun Ha-Tzvaʾī Ha-Leūmī b-Ērētz Yiśrāʾel, lit. \"The National Military Organization in the Land of Israel\"), was aZionistparamilitaryorganization that operated inMandate Palestinebetween 1931 and 1948. It was an offshoot of the older and \"Defense\", הגנה). When the group broke from the Haganah it became known as theHaganah Bet(Hebrew: literally \"Defense \'B\' \" or \"Second Defense\",הגנה ב), or alternatively as haHaganah haLeumit (ההגנה הלאומית) or Hama\'amad (המעמד).[1]Irgun members were absorbed into theIsrael Defense Forcesat the start of the1948 Arab–Israeli war. The Irgun is also referred to asEtzel(אצ\"ל), an acronym of the Hebrew initials, or by the abbreviation IZL.The Irgun policy was based on what was then calledRevisionist Zionismfounded byZe\'ev Jabotinsky. According toHoward Sachar, \"The policy of the new organization was based squarely on Jabotinsky\'s teachings: every Jew had the right to enter Palestine; only active retaliation would deter the Arabs; only Jewish armed force would ensure the Jewish state\".[2]Two of the operations for which the Irgun is best known are thebombing of the King David Hotelin Jerusalem on 22 July 1946 and theDeir Yassin massacre, carried out together withLehion 9 April 1948.The Irgun has been viewed as a terrorist organization or organization which carried out terrorist acts.[3][4]Specifically the organization \"committed acts of terrorism and assassination against the British, whom it regarded as illegal occupiers, and it was also violently anti-Arab\" according to the Encyclopædia Britannica.[5]In particular the Irgun was described as a terrorist organization by theUnited Nations, British, and United States governments, and in media such asThe New York Timesnewspaper,[6][7]and by theAnglo-American Committee of Inquiry.,[8][9]the 1946Zionist Congress[10]and theJewish Agency.[11]Irgun\'s tactics appealed to a certain segment of the Jewish community that believed that any action taken in the cause of the creation of a Jewish state was justified, includingterrorism.[12]The Irgun was a political predecessor to Israel\'sright-wingHerut(or \"Freedom\") party, which led to today\'sLikudparty.[13]Likud has led or been part of mostIsraeli governmentssince 1977.Contents[hide]· 1Nature of the movemento 1.1Structure, command, and organization· 2Prior to World War IIo 2.1Foundingo 2.2Under Tehomi\'s commando 2.3The first splito 2.4Illegal immigrationo 2.5End of restrainto 2.6Increase in operations§ 2.6.1During the same periodo 2.7First operations against the British· 3During World War IIo 3.1Second splito 3.2Change of policy· 4The \"Revolt\"o 4.1Struggle against the Britisho 4.2Underground exileso 4.3Hunting Seasono 4.4The Jewish Resistance Movemento 4.5Further struggle against the Britisho 4.6The Acre Prison breako 4.7The Sergeants affair· 5The 1948 Palestine War· 6Integration with the IDF and the Altalena Affair· 7Criticism· 8See also· 9References· 10Further readingo 10.1In fiction· 11External linksNature of the movement[edit]Ze\'ev Jabotinsky, who formulated the movement\'s ideology and wasSupreme Commanderof the EtzelMembers of the Irgun came mostly fromBetarand from theRevisionist Partyboth in Palestine and abroad. The Revisionist Movement made up a popular backing for the underground organization.Ze\'ev Jabotinsky, founder of Revisionist Zionism, commanded the organization until he died in 1940. He formulated the general realm of operation, regardingRestraintand the end thereof, and was the inspiration for the organization overall. An additional major source of ideological inspiration was the poetry ofUri Zvi Greenberg. The symbol of the organization, with the motto רק כך (only thus), underneath a hand holding a rifle in the foreground of a map showing bothMandatory Palestineand theEmirate of Transjordan(at the time, both were administered under the terms of theBritish Mandate for Palestine), impled that force was the only way to \"liberate the homeland\".[14]The number of members of the Irgun varied from a few hundred to a few thousand. Most of its members were people who joined the organization\'s command,[clarification needed]under which they carried out various operations and filled positions, largely in opposition toBritish law. Most of them were \"ordinary\" people, who held regular jobs, and only a few dozen worked full-time in the Irgun.The Irgun disagreed with the policy of theYishuvand with theWorld Zionist Organization, both with regard to strategy and basic ideology and with regard toPRand military tactics, such as use of armed force to accomplish the Zionist ends, operations against the Arabs during the riots, and relations with the British mandatory government. Therefore, the Irgun tended to ignore the decisions made by the Zionist leadership and the Yishuv\'s institutions. This fact caused the elected bodies not to recognize the independent organization, and during most of the time of its existence the organization was seen[by whom?]as irresponsible, and its actions thus worthy of thwarting. Accordingly, the Irgun accompanied its armed operations with public-relations campaigns aiming to convince the public of the Irgun\'s way and the problems with the official political leadership of the Yishuv. The Irgun put out numerous advertisements, an underground newspaper and even ran the first independent Hebrew radio station –Kol Zion HaLochemet.Structure, command, and organization[edit]Irgun Commanders· Supreme Commander 1937–1940:Ze\'ev Jabotinsky· 1931–1937:Avraham Tehomi· 1937:Robert Bitker[15]· 1937–1938:Moshe Rosenberg[16]· 1938–1939:David Raziel[17]· 1939:Hanoch Kalai· 1939:Benyamin Zeroni· 1939–1941:David Raziel· 1941–1943:Yaakov Meridor· 1943–1948:Menachem BeginAs members of an underground armed organization, Irgun personnel did not normally call Irgun by its name, but rather used other names. In the first years of its existence it was known primarily asHa-Haganah Leumit\'(The National Defense), and also by names such asHaganah Bet(\"Second Defense\"),Irgun Bet(\"Second Irgun\"), theParallel Organizationand theRightwing Organization. Later on[when?]it became most widely known as המעמד (the Stand). The anthem adopted by the Irgun was \"Anonymous Soldiers\",[18]written byAvraham (Yair) Sternwho was at the time a commander in the Irgun. Later on Stern defected from the Irgun and foundedLehi, and the song became the anthem of the Lehi. The Irgun\'s new anthem then became the third verse of the \"Betar Song\", by Ze\'ev Jabotinsky.The Irgun gradually evolved from its humble origins into a serious and well-organized paramilitary organization. The movement developed a hierarchy of ranks and a sophisticated command-structure, and came to demand serious military training and strict discipline from its members. It developed clandestine networks of hidden arms-caches and weapons-production workshops, safe-houses, and training camps.The ranks of the Irgun were (in ascending order):· Khayal= (Private)· Segen Rosh Kvutza,Segen(\"Deputy Group Leader\", \"Deputy\") = Assistant Squad Leader (Lance Corporal)· Rosh Kvutza(\"Group Leader\") = Squad Leader (Corporal)· Samal(\"Sergeant\") = Section Leader (Sergeant)· Samal Rishon(\"Sergeant First Class\") = Brigade Leader (Platoon Sergeant)· Rav Samal(\"Chief Sergeant\") = Battalion Leader (Master Sergeant)· Gundar Sheni,Gundar(\"Commander Second Class\", \"Commander\") = District Commander (2nd Lieutenant)· Gundar Rishon(\"Commander First Class\") = Senior Branch Commander, Headquarters Staff (Lieutenant).The Irgun was led by a High Command, which set policy and gave orders. Directly underneath it was a General Staff, which oversaw the activities of the Irgun. The General Staff was divided into a military and a support staff. The military staff was divided into operational units that oversaw operations and support units in charge of planning, instruction, weapons caches and manufacture, and first aid. The military and support staff never met jointly; they communicated through the High Command. Beneath the General Staff were six district commands:Jerusalem,Tel Aviv,Haifa-Galilee,Southern,Sharon, andShomron, each led by a district commander.[19]A local Irgun district unit was called a \"Branch\". A \"brigade\" in the Irgun was made up of three sections. A section was made up of two groups, at the head of each was a \"Group Head\", and a deputy. Eventually, various units were established, which answered to a \"Center\" or \"Staff\".The head of the Irgun High Command was the overall commander of the organization, but the designation of his rank varied. During the revolt against the British, Irgun commanderMenachem Beginand the entire High Command held the rank ofGundar Rishon. His predecessors, however, had held their own ranks. A rank of Military Commander (Seren) was awarded to the Irgun commanderYaakov Meridorand a rank of High Commander (Aluf) toDavid Raziel. Until his death in 1940, Jabotinsky was known as the \"Military Commander of the Etzel\" or theHa-Matzbi Ha-Elyon(\"Supreme Commander\").Under the command of Menachem Begin, the Irgun was divided into different corps:· Hayil Kravi(Combat Corps) – responsible for combat operations· Delek(\"Gasoline\") – the intelligence section; responsible for gathering and translating intelligence, and maintaining contact with local and foreign journalists· HAT(Planning Division) – responsible for planning activities· HATAM(Revolutionary Publicity Corps) – responsible for printing and disseminating propagandaIn theory, the Irgun was supposed[by whom?]to have a regular combat force, a reserve, and shock units, but in practice there were not enough personnel for a reserve or for a shock force.[19]The Irgun emphasized that its fighters be highly disciplined. Strict drill exercises were carried out at ceremonies at different times, and strict attention was given to discipline, formal ceremonies and military relationships between the various ranks. The Irgun put out professional publications on combat doctrine, weaponry, leadership, drill exercises, etc. Among these publications were three books written by David Raziel, who had studied military history, techniques, and strategy:[20]· The Pistol(written in collaboration with Avraham Stern)· The Theory of Training· Parade Ground and Field DrillA British analysis noted that the Irgun\'s discipline was \"as strict as any army in the world.\"[21]The Irgun operated a sophisticated recruitment and military-training regime. Those wishing to join had to find and make contact with a member, meaning only those who personally knew a member or were persistent could find their way in. Once contact had been established, a meeting was set up with the three-member selection committee at a safe-house, where the recruit was interviewed in a darkened room, with the committee either positioned behind a screen, or with a flashlight shone into the recruit\'s eyes. The interviewers asked basic biographical questions, and then asked a series of questions designed to weed out romantics and adventurers and those who had not seriously contemplated the potential sacrifices. Those selected attended a four-month series of indoctrination seminars in groups of five to ten, where they were taught the Irgun\'s ideology and the code of conduct it expected of its members. These seminars also had another purpose - to weed out the impatient and those of flawed purpose who had gotten past the selection interview. Then, members were introduced to other members, were taught the locations of safe-houses, and given military training. Irgun recruits trained with firearms, hand grenades, and were taught how to conduct combined attacks on targets. Arms handling and tactics courses were given in clandestine training camps, while practice shooting took place in the desert or by the sea. Eventually, separate training camps were established for heavy-weapons training. The most rigorous course was the explosives course for bomb-makers, which lasted a year.[19]The British authorities believed that some Irgun members enlisted in the Jewish section of thePalestine Police Forcefor a year as part of their training, during which they also passed intelligence.[21]In addition to the Irgun\'s sophisticated training program, many Irgun members were veterans of the Haganah (including thePalmach), theBritish Armed Forces, and Jewish partisan groups that had waged guerrilla warfare in Nazi-occupied Europe, thus bringing significant military training and combat experience into the organization.[21]The Irgun also operated a course for its intelligence operatives, in which recruits were taught espionage, cryptography, and analysis techniques.[21]Of the Irgun\'s members, almost all were part-time members. They were expected to maintain their civilian lives and jobs, dividing their time between their civilian lives and underground activities. There were never more than 40 full-time members, who were given a small expense stipend on which to live on.[19]Upon joining, every member received an underground name. The Irgun\'s members were divided into cells, and worked with the members of their own cells. The identities of Irgun members in other cells were withheld. This ensured that an Irgun member taken prisoner could betray no more than a few comrades.In addition to the Irgun\'s members in Palestine, underground Irgun cells composed of local Jews were established inEuropefollowingWorld War II. An Irgun cell was also established inShanghai, home to many European-Jewish refugees. The Irgun also set up a Swiss bank account. Eli Tavin, the former head of Irgun intelligence, was appointed commander of the Irgun abroad.[19]In November 1947, theJewish insurgencycame to an end as the UN approved of the partition of Palestine, and the British had announced their intention to withdraw the previous month. As the British left and the1947-48 Civil War in Mandatory Palestinegot underway, the Irgun came out of the underground and began to function more as a standing army rather an underground organization. It began openly recruiting, training, and raising funds, and established bases, including training facilities. It also introduced field communications and created a medical unit and supply service.[22][23]Until World War II the group armed itself with weapons purchased in Europe, primarilyItalyandPoland, and smuggled to Palestine. The Irgun also established workshops that manufactured spare parts and attachments for the weapons. Also manufactured were land mines and simple hand grenades. Another way in which the Irgun armed itself was theft of weapons from theBritish Policeand military.Prior to World War II[edit]Founding[edit]The Irgun\'s first steps were in the aftermath of theRiots of 1929. In theJerusalembranch of the Haganah there were feelings of disappointment and internal unrest towards the leadership of the movements and theHistadrut(at that time the organization running the Haganah). These feelings were a result of the view that the Haganah was not adequately defending Jewish interests in the region. Likewise, critics of the leadership spoke out against alleged failures in the number of weapons, readiness of the movement and its policy of restraint and not fighting back. On April 10, 1931, commanders and equipment managers announced that they refuse to return weapons to the Haganah that had been issued to them earlier, prior to theNebi Musaholiday. These weapons were later returned by the commander of the Jerusalem branch,Avraham Tehomi, a.k.a. \"Gideon\". However, the commanders who decided to rebel against the leadership of the Haganah relayed a message regarding their resignations to theVaad Leumi, and thus this schism created a new independent movement.The leader of the new underground movement wasAvraham Tehomi, alongside other founding members who were all senior commanders in the Haganah, members ofHapoel Hatzairand of the Histadrut. Also among them wasEliyahu Ben Horin, an activist in theRevisionist Party. This group was known as the \"Odessan Gang\", because they previously had been members of theHaganah Ha\'Atzmitof JewishOdessa. The new movement was namedIrgun Tsvai Leumi, (\"National Military Organization\") in order to emphasize its active nature in contrast to the Haganah. Moreover, the organization was founded with the desire to become a true military organization and not just amilitiaas the Haganah was at the time.In the autumn of that year the Jerusalem group merged with other armed groups affiliated withBetar. The Betar groups\' center of activity was inTel Aviv, and they began their activity in 1928 with the establishment of \"Officers and Instructors School of Betar\". Students at this institution had broken away from the Haganah earlier, for political reasons, and the new group called itself the \"National Defense\", הגנה הלאומית. During the riots of 1929 Betar youth participated in the defense of Tel Aviv neighborhoods under the command of Yermiyahu Halperin, at the behest of the Tel Aviv city hall. After the riots the Tel Avivian group expanded, and was known as \"TheRight WingOrganization\".After the Tel Aviv expansion another branch was established inHaifa. Towards the end of 1932 the Haganah branch ofSafedalso defected and joined the Irgun, as well as many members of theMaccabisports association. At that time the movement\'s underground newsletter,Ha\'Metsudah(the Fortress) also began publication, expressing the active trend of the movement. The Irgun also increased its numbers by expanding draft regiments of Betar – groups of volunteers, committed to two years of security and pioneer activities. These regiments were based in places that from which stemmed new Irgun strongholds in the many places, including the settlements ofYesod HaMa\'ala,Mishmar HaYarden,Rosh Pina,MetulaandNahariyain the north; in the center Saba, and south of there –Rishon LeZion,RehovotandNess Ziona. Later on regiments were also active in theOld City of Jerusalem(\"the Kotel Brigades\") among others. Primary training centers were based inRamat Gan,Qastina(byKiryat Mal\'akhiof today) and other places.Under Tehomi\'s command[edit]Main article:1936–1939 Arab revolt in PalestineAvraham Tehomi, the first Commander of the IrgunIn 1933 there were some signs of unrest, seen by the incitement of the local Arab leadership to act against the authorities. The strong British response put down the disturbances quickly. During that time the Irgun operated in a similar manner to the Haganah and was a guarding organization. The two organizations cooperated in ways such as coordination of posts and even intelligence sharing.Within the Irgun, Tehomi was the first to serve as \"Head of the Headquarters\" or \"Chief Commander\". Alongside Tehomi served the senior commanders, or \"Headquarters\" of the movement. As the organization grew, it was divided into district commands.In August 1933 a \"Supervisory Committee\" for the Irgun was established, which included representatives from most of the Zionist political parties. The members of this committee wereMeir Grossman(of the Hebrew State Party), RabbiMeir Bar-Ilan(of theMizrachi Party, eitherImmanuel NeumannorYehoshua Supersky(of theGeneral Zionists) andZe\'ev JabotinskyorEliyahu Ben Horin(ofHatzohar).In protest against, and with the aim of endingJewish immigration to Palestine, theGreat Arab Revolt of 1936–1939broke out on April 19, 1936. The riots took the form of attacks by Arab rioters ambushing main roads, bombing of roads and settlements as well as property and agriculture vandalism. In the beginning, the Irgun and the Haganah generally maintained a policy of restraint, apart from a few instances. Some expressed resentment at this policy, leading up internal unrest in the two organizations. The Irgun tended to retaliate more often, and sometimes Irgun members patrolled areas beyond their positions in order to encounter attackers ahead of time. However, there were differences of opinion regarding what to do in the Haganah, as well. Due to the joining of manyBetarYouth members, Jabotinsky (founder of Betar) had a great deal of influence over Irgun policy. Nevertheless, Jabotinsky was of the opinion that for moral reasons violent retaliation was not to be undertaken.In November 1936 thePeel Commissionwas sent to inquire regarding the breakout of the riots and propose a solution to end the Revolt. In early 1937 there were still some in theYishuvwho felt the commission would recommend a partition ofMandatory Palestine(the land west of theJordan River), thus creating a Jewish state on part of the land. The Irgun leadership, as well as the \"Supervisory Committee\" held similar beliefs, as did some members of the Haganah and theJewish Agency. This belief strengthened the policy ofrestraintand led to the position that there was no room for defense institutions in the future Jewish state. Tehomi was quoted as saying: \"We stand before great events: a Jewish state and a Jewish army. There is a need for a single military force\". This position intensified the differences of opinion regarding the policy of restraint, both within the Irgun and within the political camp aligned with the organization. The leadership committee of the Irgun supported a merger with the Haganah. On April 24, 1937 a referendum was held among Irgun members regarding its continued independent existence. David Raziel and Avraham (Yair) Stern came out publicly in support for the continued existence of the Irgun:The Irgun has been placed ... before a decision to make, whether to submit to the authority of the government and theJewish Agencyor to prepare for a double sacrifice and endangerment. Some of our friends do not have appropriate willingness for this difficult position, and have submitted to the Jewish Agency and has left the battle ... all of the attempts ... to unite with the leftist organization have failed, because the Left entered into negotiations not on the basis of unification of forces, but the submission of one such force to the other....[24]The first split[edit]In April 1937 the Irgun split after the referendum. Approximately 1,500–2,000 people, about half of the Irgun\'s membership, including the senior command staff, regional committee members, along with most of the Irgun\'s weapons, returned to the Haganah, which at that time was under the Jewish Agency\'s leadership. The Supervisory Committee\'s control over the Irgun ended, and Jabotinsky assumed command. In their opinion, the removal of the Haganah from the Jewish Agency\'s leadership to the national institutions necessitated their return. Furthermore, they no longer saw significant ideological differences between the movements. Those who remained in the Irgun were primarily young activists, mostly laypeople, who sided with the independent existence of the Irgun. In fact, most of those who remained were originally Betar people.Moshe Rosenbergestimated that approximately 1,800 members remained. In theory, the Irgun remained an organization not aligned with a political party, but in reality the supervisory committee was disbanded and the Irgun\'s continued ideological path was outlined according to Ze\'ev Jabotinsky\'s school of thought and his decisions, until the movement eventually became Revisionist Zionism\'s military arm. One of the major changes in policy by Jabotinsky was the end of the policy ofrestraint.On April 27, 1937 the Irgun founded a new headquarters, staffed by Moshe Rosenberg at the head,Avraham (Yair) Sternas secretary,David Razielas head of the Jerusalem branch,Hanoch Kalaias commander of Haifa andAharon Haichmanas commander of Tel Aviv. On 20Tammuz, (June 29) the day ofTheodor Herzl\'s death, a ceremony was held in honor of the reorganization of the underground movement. For security purposes this ceremony was held at a construction site in Tel Aviv.Ze\'ev Jabotinsky placed Col.Robert Bitkerat the head of the Irgun. Bitker had previously served as Betar commissioner in China and had military experience. A few months later, probably due to total incompatibility with the position, Jabotinsky replaced Bitker with Moshe Rosenberg. When thePeel Commissionreport was published a few months later, the Revisionist camp decided not to accept the commission\'s recommendations. Moreover, the organizations of Betar,Hatzoharand the Irgun began to increase their efforts to bring Jews to the land of Israel, illegally. ThisAliyahwas known as the עליית אף על פי \"Af Al Pi (Nevertheless) Aliyah\". As opposed to this position, the Jewish Agency began acting on behalf of the Zionist interest on the political front, and continued the policy of restraint. From this point onwards the differences between the Haganah and the Irgun were much more obvious.Illegal immigration[edit]The shipParitaunloading immigrants at the beach inTel AvivAccording to Jabotinsky\'s \"Evacuation Plan\", which called for millions ofEuropean Jewsto be brought to Palestine at once, the Irgun helped theillegal immigrationof European Jews to the land of Israel. This was named by Jabotinsky the \"National Sport\". The most significant part of this immigration prior toWorld War IIwas carried out by theRevisionistcamp, largely because theYishuvinstitutions and the Jewish Agency shied away from such actions on grounds of cost and their belief that Britain would in the future allow widespread Jewish immigration.The Irgun joined forces withHatzoharandBetarin September 1937, when it assisted with the landing of a convoy of 54 Betar members at Tantura Beach (nearHaifa.) The Irgun was responsible for discreetly bringing theOlim, or Jewish immigrants, to the beaches, and dispersing them among the various Jewish settlements. The Irgun also began participating in the organisation of the immigration enterprise and undertook the process of accompanying the ships. This began with the shipDragawhich arrived at the coast of British Palestine in September 1938. In August of the same year, an agreement was made between Ari Jabotinsky (the son of Ze\'ev Jabotinsky), the Betar representative andHillel Kook, the Irgun representative, to coordinate the immigration (also known asHa\'apala). This agreement was also made in the \"Paris Convention\" in February 1939, at which Ze\'ev Jabotinsky and David Raziel were present. Afterwards, the \"Aliyah Center\" was founded, made up of representatives of Hatzohar, Betar, and the Irgun, thereby making the Irgun a full participant in the process.The difficult conditions on the ships demanded a high level of discipline. The people on board the ships were often split into units, led by commanders. In addition to having a daily roll call and the distribution of food and water (usually very little of either), organized talks were held to provide information regarding the actual arrival in Palestine. One of the largest ships was theSakaria, with 2,300 passengers, which equalled about 0.5% of the Jewish population in Palestine. The first vessel arrived on April 13, 1937, and the last on February 13, 1940. All told, about 18,000 Jews immigrated to Palestine with the help of the Revisionist organizations and private initiatives by other Revisionists. Most were not caught by the British.End of restraint[edit]Main article:List of Irgun attacksDavid Raziel, commander of the IrgunIrgun members continued to defend settlements, but at the same time began attacks on Arab villages, thus ending the policy of restraint. These attacks were intended to instill fear in the Arab side, in order to cause the Arabs to wish for peace and quiet. In March 1938,David Razielwrote in the underground newspaper \"By the Sword\" a constitutive article for the Irgun overall, in which he coined the term\"Active Defense\":The actions of the Haganah alone will never be a true victory. If the goal of the war is to break the will of the enemy – and this cannot be attained without destroying his spirit – clearly we cannot be satisfied with solely defensive operations.... Such a method of defense, that allows the enemy to attack at will, to reorganize and attack again ... and does not intend to remove the enemy\'s ability to attack a second time – is called passive defense, and ends in downfall and destruction ... whoever does not wish to be beaten has no choice but to attack. The fighting side, that does not intend to oppress but to save its liberty and honor, he too has only one way available – the way of attack. Defensiveness by way of offensiveness, in order to deprive the enemy the option of attacking, is calledactive defense.The first attacks began around April 1936, and by the end of World War II, more than 250 Arabs had been killed. Examples include:· After an Arab shooting at Carmel school in Tel Aviv, which resulted in the death of a Jewish child, Irgun members attacked an Arab neighborhood nearKerem Hatemanimin Tel Aviv, killing one Arab man and injuring another.· On August 17, the Irgun responded to shootings by Arabs from theJaffa–Jerusalemtrain towards Jews that were waiting by the train block on Herzl Street in Tel Aviv. The same day, when a Jewish child was injured by the shooting, Irgun members attacked a train on the same route, killing one Arab and injuring five.During 1936, Irgun members carried out approximately ten attacks.Throughout 1937 the Irgun continued this line of operation.· On March 6, a Jew at Sabbath prayers at theWestern Wallwas shot by a local Arab. A few hours later, the Irgun shot at an Arab in the Jerusalem neighborhood of Rechavia.· On June 29, a band of Arabs attacked anEggedbus on the Jerusalem – Tel Aviv road, killing one Jew. The following day, two Jews were also killed nearKarkur. A few hours later, the Irgun carried out a number of operations.· An Arab bus making its way fromLiftawas attacked in Jerusalem.· In two other locations in Jerusalem, Arabs were shot as well.· In Tel Aviv, a hand grenade was thrown at an Arab coffee shop on Carmel St., injuring many of the patrons.· Irgun members also injured an Arab on Reines St. in Tel Aviv.· On September 5, the Irgun responded to the murder of a rabbi on his way home from prayer in theOld City of Jerusalemby throwing explosives at an Arab bus that had left Lifta, injuring two female passengers and a British police officer.A more complete list can be foundhere.At that time, however, these acts were not yet a part of a formulated policy of the Irgun.[25]Not all of the aforementioned operations received a commander\'s approval, and Jabotinsky was not in favor of such actions at the time. Jabotinsky still hoped to establish a Jewish force out in the open that would not have to operate underground. However, the failure, in its eyes, of thePeel Commissionand the renewal of violence on the part of the Arabs caused the Irgun to rethink its official policy.Increase in operations[edit]14 November 1937 was a watershed in Irgun activity. From that date, the Irgun increased its reprisals. Following an increase in the number of attacks aimed at Jews, including the killing of fivekibbutzmembers nearKiryat Anavim(today kibbutzMa\'ale HaHamisha), the Irgun undertook a series of attacks in various places in Jerusalem, killing five Arabs. Operations were also undertaken inHaifa(shooting at the Arab-populatedWadi Nisnasneighborhood) and inHerzliya. The date is known as the day the policy of restraint (Havlagah) ended, or as \"Black Sunday\". This is when the organization fully changed its policy, with the approval of Jabotinsky and Headquarters to the policy of \"active defense\" in respect of Irgun actions.[26]The British responded with the arrest of Betar and Hatzohar members as suspected members of the Irgun.Military courtswere allowed to act under \"Time of Emergency Regulations\" and even sentence people to death. In this mannerYehezkel Altman, a guard in a Betar battalion in theNahalat Yizchakneighborhood of Tel Aviv, shot at an Arab bus, without his commanders\' knowledge. Altman was acting in response to a shooting at Jewish vehicles on the Tel Aviv–Jerusalem road the day before. He turned himself in later and was sentenced to death, a sentence which was later commuted to a life sentence.Despite the arrests, Irgun members continued fighting. Jabotinsky lent his moral support to these activities. In a letter to Moshe Rosenberg on 18 March 1938 he wrote:Tell them: from afar I collect and save, as precious treasures, news items about your lives. I know of the obstacles that have not impeded your spirit; and I know of your actions as well. I am overjoyed that I have been blessed with such students.Although the Irgun continued activities such as these, following Rosenberg\'s orders, they were greatly curtailed. Furthermore, in fear of the British threat of the death sentence for anyone found carrying a weapon, all operations were suspended for eight months. However, opposition to this policy gradually increased. In April, 1938, responding to the killing of six Jews, Betar members from theRosh PinaBrigade went on a reprisal mission, without the consent of their commander, as described by historianAvi Shlaim:On 21 April 1938, after several weeks of planning, he and two of his colleagues from the Irgun (Etzel) ambushed an Arab bus at a bend on a mountain road near Safad. They had a hand grenade, a gun and a pistol. Their plan was to destroy the engine so that the bus would fall off the side of the road and all the passengers would be killed. When the bus approached, they fired at it (not in the air, as Mailer has it) but the grenade lobbed by Ben Yosef did not detonate. The bus with its screaming and terrified passengers drove on.[27]Although the incident ended without casualties, the three were caught, and one of them –Shlomo Ben-Yosefwas sentenced to death. Demonstrations around the country, as well as pressure from institutions and people such asDr. Chaim Weizmannand theChief RabbiofMandatory Palestine,Yitzhak HaLevi Herzogdid not reduce his sentence. In Shlomo Ben-Yosef\'s writings in Hebrew were later found:I am going to die and I am not sorry at all. Why? Because I am going to die for our country. Shlomo Ben-Yosef.On 29 June 1938 he was executed, and was the first of theOlei Hagardom. The Irgun revered him after his death and many regarded him as an example. In light of this, and due to the anger of the Irgun leadership over the decision to adopt a policy of restraint until that point, Jabotinsky relieved Rosenberg of his post and replaced him with David Raziel, who proved to be the most prominent Irgun commander untilMenachem Begin. Jabotinsky simultaneously instructed the Irgun to end its policy of restraint, leading to armed offensive operations until the end of the Arab Revolt in 1939. In this time, the Irgun mounted about 40 operations against Arabs and Arab villages, for instance:· After a Jewish father and son were killed in theOld City of Jerusalem, on June 6, 1938, Irgun members threw explosives from the roof of a nearby house, killing two Arabs and injuring four.· The Irgun plantedland minesin a number of Arabmarkets, primarily in places identified by the Irgun as activity centers of armed Arab gangs.· Explosives detonated in the Arabsoukin Jerusalem on July 15, killed ten local Arabs.· In similar circumstances, 70 Arabs were killed by aland mineplanted in the Arab souk in Haifa.This action led theBritish Parliamentto discuss the disturbances in Palestine. On 23 February 1939 theSecretary of State for the Colonies,Malcolm MacDonaldrevealed the British intention to cancel the mandate and establish a state that would preserve Arab rights. This caused a wave of riots and attacks by Arabs against Jews. The Irgun responded four days later with a series of attacks on Arab buses and other sites. The British used military force against the Arab rioters and in the latter stages of the revolt by the Arab community in Palestine, it deteriorated into a series of internal gang wars.During the same period[edit]1931propagandaposter of the Irgun for distribution incentral Europe– the map shows Israel defined in the borders of bothMandatory Palestineand theEmirate of Transjordan, which the Irgun claimed in its entirety for a future Jewish state.At the same time, the Irgun also established itself in Europe. The Irgun built underground cells that participated in organizing migration to Palestine. The cells were made up almost entirely of Betar members, and their primary activity was military training in preparation for emigration to Palestine. Ties formed with the Polish authorities brought about courses in which Irgun commanders were trained by Polish officers in advanced military issues such asguerrilla warfare,tacticsand laying land mines.Avraham (Yair) Sternwas notable among the cell organizers in Europe. In 1937 the Polish authorities began to deliver large amounts of weapons to the underground. The transfer of handguns, rifles, explosives and ammunition stopped with the outbreak of World War II. Another field in which the Irgun operated was the training of pilots, so they could serve in theAir Forcein the future war for independence, in the flight school inLod.Towards the end of 1938 there was progress towards aligning the ideologies of the Irgun and the Haganah. Many abandoned the belief that the land would be divided and a Jewish state would soon exist. The Haganah founded פו\"מ, a special operations unit, (pronouncedpoom), which carried out reprisal attacks following Arab violence. These operations continued into 1939. Furthermore, the opposition within theYishuvto illegal immigration significantly decreased, and the Haganah began to bring Jews to Palestine using rented ships, as the Irgun had in the past.First operations against the British[edit]The publishing of the MacDonaldWhite Paper of 1939brought with it new edicts that were intended to lead to a more equitable settlement between Jews and Arabs. However, it was considered by some Jews to have an adverse effect on the continued development of the Jewish community in Palestine. Chief among these was the prohibition on selling land to Jews, and the smaller quotas for Jewish immigration. The entire Yishuv was furious at the contents of the White Paper. There were demonstrations against the \"Treacherous Paper\", as it was considered that it would preclude the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine.Under the temporary command ofHanoch Kalai, the Irgun began sabotaging strategic infrastructure such as electricity facilities, radio and telephone lines. It also started publicizing its activity and its goals. This was done in street announcements, newspapers, as well as the underground radio stationKol Zion HaLochemet. On August 26, 1939, the Irgun killedRalph Cairns, a British police officer who, as head of the Jewish Department in thePalestine Police, hadtortureda number of youths who were underground members.[28][29]Cairns and Ronald Barker, another British police officer, were killed by an IrgunIED.[30]The British increased their efforts against the Irgun. As a result, on August 31 the British police arrested members meeting in the Irgun headquarters. On the next day, September 1, 1939, World War II broke out.During World War II[edit]Following the outbreak of war, Ze\'ev Jabotinsky and theNew Zionist Organizationvoiced their support for Britain and France. In mid-September 1939 Raziel was moved from his place of detention inTzrifin. This, among other events, encouraged the Irgun to announce a cessation of its activities against the British so as not to hinder Britain\'s effort to fight \"the Hebrew\'s greatest enemy in the world – GermanNazism\". This announcement ended with the hope that after the war a Hebrew state would be founded \"within the historical borders of the liberated homeland\". After this announcement Irgun, Betar and Hatzohar members, including Raziel and the Irgun leadership, were gradually released from detention. The Irgun did not rule out joining the British army and theJewish Brigade. Irgun members did enlist in various British units.[31]Irgun members also assisted British forces with intelligence inRomania,Bulgaria,MoroccoandTunisia. An Irgun unit also operated inSyriaandLebanon. David Raziel later died during one of these operations.During theHolocaust, Betar members revolted numerous times against the Nazis inoccupied Europe. The largest of these revolts was theWarsaw Ghetto Uprising, in which an armed underground organization fought, formed by Betar and Hatzoar and known as theŻydowski Związek Wojskowy(ŻZW)(Jewish Military Union). Despite its political origins, the ŻZW accepted members without regard to political affiliation, and had contacts established before the war with elements of the Polish military. Because of differences over objectives and strategy, the ŻZW was unable to form a common front with the mainstream ghetto fighters of theŻydowska Organizacja Bojowa, and fought independently under the military leadership ofPaweł Frenkieland the political leadership ofDawid Wdowiński.[32]There were instances of Betar members enlisted in the British military smuggling British weapons to the Irgun. [ref?]From 1939 onwards, an Irgun delegation in the United States worked for the creation of a Jewish army made up of Jewish refugees and Jews from Palestine, to fight alongside theAllied Forces. In July 1943 the \"Emergency Committee to Save the Jewish People in Europe\" was formed, and worked until the end of the war to rescue theJews of Europefrom the Nazis and to garner public support for a Jewish state. However, it was not until January 1944 thatUS PresidentFranklin Rooseveltestablished theWar Refugee Board, which achieved some success in saving European Jews.Second split[edit]Avraham (Yair) SternThroughout this entire period, the British continued enforcing theWhite Paper\'s provisions, which included a ban on the sale of land, restrictions on Jewish immigration and increased vigilance against illegal immigration. Part of the reason why the British banned land sales (to anyone) was the confused state of the post Ottoman land registry; it was difficult to determine who actually owned the land that was for sale.Within the ranks of the Irgun this created much disappointment and unrest, at the center of which was disagreement with the leadership of theNew Zionist Organization, David Raziel and the Irgun Headquarters. On June 18, 1939, Avraham (Yair) Stern and others of the leadership were released from prison and a rift opened between them the Irgun and Hatzohar leadership. The controversy centred on the issues of the underground movement submitting to public political leadership and fighting the British. On his release from prison Raziel resigned from Headquarters. To his chagrin, independent operations of senior members of the Irgun were carried out and some commanders even doubted Raziel\'s loyalty.In his place, Stern was elected to the leadership. In the past, Stern had founded secret Irgun cells in Poland without Jabotinsky\'s knowledge, in opposition to his wishes. Furthermore, Stern was in favor of removing the Irgun from the authority of the New Zionist Organization, whose leadership urged Raziel to return to the command of the Irgun. He finally consented. Jabotinsky wrote to Raziel and to Stern, and these letters were distributed to the branches of the Irgun:... I call upon you: Let nothing disturb our unity. Listen to the commissioner (Raziel), whom I trust, and promise me that you andBetar, the greatest of my life\'s achievements, will stand strong and united and allow me to continue with the hope for victory in the war to realize our oldMaccabeandream....Stern was sent a telegram with an order to obey Raziel, who was reappointed. However, these events did not prevent the splitting of the organization. Suspicion and distrust were rampant among the members. Out of the Irgun a new organization was created on July 17, 1940,[33]which was first named \"The National Military Organization in Israel\" (as opposed to the \"National Military Organization inthe Land ofIsrael\") and later on changed its name toLehi, an acronym forLohamei Herut Israel, \"Fighters for the Freedom of Israel\", (לח\"י – לוחמי חירות ישראל). Jabotinsky died inNew Yorkon August 4, 1940, yet this did not prevent the Lehi split. Following Jabotinsky\'s death, ties were formed between the Irgun and theNew Zionist Organization. These ties would last until 1944, when the Irgun declared a revolt against the British.The primary difference between the Irgun and the newly formed organization was its intention to fight the British in Palestine, regardless of their war against Germany. Later, additional operational and ideological differences developed that contradicted some of the Irgun\'s guiding principles. For example, the Lehi, unlike the Irgun, supported apopulation exchangewith local Arabs.Change of policy[edit]The Irgun\'s Anthem[34]Tagar -Through all obstacles and enemiesWhether you go up or downIn the flames of revoltCarry a flame to kindle – never mind!For silence is filthWorthless is blood and soulFor the sake of the hidden gloryTo die or to conquer the hill -Yodefet, Masada, Betar.The split damaged the Irgun both organizationally and from a morale point of view. As their spiritual leader, Jabotinsky\'s death also added to this feeling. Together, these factors brought about a mass abandonment by members. The British took advantage of this weakness to gather intelligence and arrest Irgun activists. The new Irgun leadership, which included Meridor, Yerachmiel Ha\'Levi, Moshe Segal and others used the forced hiatus in activity to rebuild the injured organization. This period was also marked by more cooperation between the Irgun and the Jewish Agency, howeverDavid Ben-Gurion\'s uncompromising demand that Irgun accept the Agency\'s command foiled any further cooperation.In both the Irgun and the Haganah more voices were being heard opposing any cooperation with the British. Nevertheless, an Irgun operation carried out in the service of Britain was aimed at sabotaging pro-Nazi forces inIraq, including the assassination ofHaj Amin al-Husayni. Among others, Raziel andYaakov Meridorparticipated. On April 20, 1941, during aLuftwaffeair raid onRAF HannaniyanearBaghdad, David Raziel, commander of the Irgun, was killed during the operation.In late 1943 a joint Haganah – Irgun initiative was developed, to form a single fighting body, unaligned with any political party, by the name of עם לוחם (Fighting Nation).[35][36]The new body\'s first plan was to kidnap the British High Commissioner of Palestine,Sir Harold MacMichaeland take him toCyprus. However, the Haganah leaked the planned operation and it was thwarted before it got off the ground. Nevertheless, at this stage the Irgun ceased its cooperation with the British. AsEliyahu Lankintells in his book:Immediately following the failure ofFighting Nationpractical discussions began in the Irgun Headquarters regarding a declaration of war.The \"Revolt\"[edit]In 1943 thePolish II Corps, commanded byWładysław Anders, arrived in Palestine fromIraq. The British insisted that no Jewish units of the army be created. Eventually, many of the soldiers of Jewish origin that arrived with the army were released and allowed to stay in Palestine. One of them wasMenachem Begin,[37]whose arrival in Palestine created new-found expectations within the Irgun and Betar. Begin had served as head of the Betar movement inPoland,[38]and was a respected leader.Yaakov Meridor, then the commander of the Irgun, raised the idea of appointing Begin to the post. In late 1943, when Begin accepted the position, a new leadership was formed. Meridor became Begin\'s deputy, and other members of the board were Aryeh Ben Eliezer, Eliyahu Lankin, and Shlomo Lev Ami.[39]On February 1, 1944 the Irgun put up posters all around the country, proclaiming a revolt against the British mandatory government. The posters began by saying that all of theZionistmovements stood by theAllied Forcesand over 25,000 Jews had enlisted in the British military. The hope to establish a Jewish army had died. European Jewry was trapped and was being destroyed, yet Britain, for its part, did not allow any rescue missions. This part of the document ends with the following words:The White Paperis still in effect. It is enforced, despite the betrayal of the Arabs and the loyalty of the Jews; despite the mass enlisting to the British Army; despite theceasefireand the quiet in The Land of Israel; despite the massacre of masses of the Jewish people in Europe....The facts are simple and horrible as one. Over the last four years ofthe warwe have lost millions of the best of our people; millions more are in danger of eradication. And The Land of Israel is closed off and quarantined because the British rule it, realizing the White Paper, and strives for the destruction of our people\'s last hope.The Irgun then declared that, for its part, the ceasefire was over and they were now at war with the British. It demanded the transfer of rule to a Jewish government, to implement ten policies. Among these were the mass evacuation of Jews from Europe, the signing of treaties with any state that recognized the Jewish state\'s sovereignty, including Britain, granting social justice to the state\'s residents, and full equality to the Arab population. The proclamation ended with:The God of Israel, God of Hosts, will be at our side. There is no retreat. Liberty or death.... The fighting youth will not recoil in the face of sacrifices and suffering, blood and torment. They will not surrender, so long as our days of old are not renewed, so long as our nation is not ensured a homeland, liberty, honor, bread, justice and law.The Irgun began this campaign rather weakly. At the time of the start of the revolt, it was only about 1,000 strong, including some 200 fighters. It possessed about 4 submachine guns, 40 rifles, 60 pistols, 150 hand grenades, and 2,000 kilograms of explosive material, and it\'s funds were about £800.[21]Struggle against the British[edit]Main article:Jewish insurgency in PalestineThe Irgun began a militant operation against the symbols of government, in an attempt to harm the regime\'s operation as well as its reputation. The first attack was on February 12, 1944 at the government immigration offices, a symbol of the immigration laws. The attacks went smoothly and ended with no casualties—as they took place on a Saturday night, when the buildings were empty—in the three largest cities: Jerusalem, Tel Aviv, and Haifa. On February 27 the income tax offices were bombed. Parts of the same cities were blown up, also on a Saturday night; prior warnings were put up near the buildings. On March 23 the national headquarters building of the British police in theRussian Compoundin Jerusalem was attacked, and part of it was blown up. These attacks in the first few months were sharply condemned by the organized leadership of the Yishuv and by the Jewish Agency, who saw them as dangerous provocations.At the same time theLehialso renewed its attacks against the British.[40]The Irgun continued to attack police stations and headquarters, andTegart Fort, a fortified police station (today the location ofLatrun). One relatively complex operation was the takeover of the radio station inRamallah, on May 17, 1944.One symbolic act by the Irgun happened beforeYom Kippurof 1944. They plastered notices around town, warning that no British officers should come to theWestern Wallon Yom Kippur, and for the first time since the mandate began no British police officers were there to prevent the Jews from the traditionalShofarblowing at the end of the fast.[41]After the fast that year the Irgun attacked four police stations in Arab settlements. In order to obtain weapons, the Irgun carried out \"confiscation\" operations – they robbed British armouries and smuggled stolen weapons to their own hiding places. During this phase of activity the Irgun also cut all of its official ties with theNew Zionist Organization, so as not to tie their fate in the underground organization.Begin wrote in hismemoirs,The Revolt:History and experience taught us that if we are able to destroy the prestige of the British in Palestine, the regime will break. Since we found the enslaving government\'s weak point, we did not let go of it.[42]Underground exiles[edit]Main article:Irgun and Lehi internment in AfricaIn October 1944 the British began expelling hundreds of arrested Irgun and Lehi members to detention camps inAfrica. 251 detainees fromLatrunwere flown on thirteen planes, on October 19 to a camp inAsmara,Eritrea. Eleven additional transports were made. Throughout the period of their detention, the detainees often initiated rebellions and hunger strikes. Many escape attempts were made until July 1948 when the exiles were returned to Israel. While there were numerous successful escapes from the camp itself, only nine men actually made it back all the way. One noted success was that ofYaakov Meridor, who escaped nine times before finally reaching Europe in April 1948. These tribulations were the subject of his bookLong is the Path to Freedom: Chronicles of one of the Exiles.Hunting Season[edit]Main article:The Hunting SeasonOn November 6, 1944,Lord Moyne, British Deputy Resident Minister of State inCairowas assassinated by Lehi membersEliyahu HakimandEliyahu Bet-Zuri. This act raised concerns within the Yishuv from the British regime\'s reaction to the underground\'s violent acts against them. Therefore, the Jewish Agency decided on starting aHunting Season,[43][44]known as thesaison, (from theFrench\"la saison de chasse\").The Irgun\'s recuperation was noticeable when it began to renew its cooperation with the Lehi in May 1945, when it sabotaged oil pipelines, telephone lines and railroad bridges. All in all, over 1,000 members of the Irgun and Lehi were arrested and interred in British camps during theSaison. Eventually the Hunting Season died out, and there was even talk of cooperation with the Haganah leading to the formation of theJewish Resistance Movement.The Jewish Resistance Movement[edit]Main article:The Jewish Resistance MovementThe King David Hotel after the bombing, photo fromThe Palestine PostTowards the end of July 1945 theLabour partyin Britain was elected to power. The Yishuv leadership had high hopes that this would change the anti-Zionist policy that the British maintained at the time. However, these hopes were quickly dashed when the government limited Jewish immigration, with the intention that the population ofMandatory Palestine(the land west of theJordan River) would not be more than one third of the total. This, along with the stepping up of arrests and their pursuit of underground members and illegal immigration organizers led to the formation of theJewish Resistance Movement. This body consolidated the armed resistance to the British of the Irgun, Lehi, and Haganah. For ten months the Irgun and the Lehi cooperated and they carried out nineteen attacks and defense operations. The Haganah and Palmach carried out ten such operations. The Haganah also assisted in landing 13,000 illegal immigrants.Tension between the underground movements and the British increased with the increase in operations. On April 23, 1945 an operation undertaken by the Irgun to gain weapons from theTegart fortatRamat Ganresulted in a firefight. One Irgun member was killed and his body was later hanged on the fort\'s fence. Another fighter,Yizchak Bilu, was killed as well in a diversionary ploy – an explosive device fell out of his hand, and he leapt onto it in order to save his comrades, who were also carrying explosives. A third fighter,Dov Gruner, was caught. He stood trial and was sentenced to be death by hanging, refusing to sign a pardon request.[45]In 1946, British relations with the Yishuv worsened, building up toOperation Agathaof June 29. The authorities ignored theAnglo-American Committee of Inquiry\'s recommendation to allow 100,000 Jews into Palestine at once. As a result of the discovery of documents tying the Jewish Agency to the Jewish Resistance Movement, the Irgun was asked to speed up the plans for theKing David Hotel bombingof July 22.[46]The hotel was where the documents were located, the base for the British Secretariat, the military command and a branch of theCriminal Investigation Divisionof the police. The Irgun later claimed to have sent a warning that was ignored.[47]91 people were killed in the attack where a 350kg bomb was placed in the basement of the hotel and caused a large section of it to collapse. Only 13 were British soldiers.Further struggle against the British[edit]Menachem Beginas \"Rabbi Sassover\", with wife Aliza and son Benyamin-Zeev, Tel Aviv, December 1946The King David Hotel bombing and the arrest of Jewish Agency and other Yishuv leaders as part ofOperation Agathacaused the Haganah to cease their armed activity against the British. Yishuv and Jewish Agency leaders were released from prison. From then until the end of the British mandate, resistance activities were led by the Irgun and Lehi. In early September 1946 the Irgun renewed its attacks against civil structures, railroads, communication lines and bridges. One operation was the attack on the train station in Jerusalem, in whichMeir Feinsteinwas arrested and later committed suicide awaiting execution. According to the Irgun these sort of armed attacks were legitimate, since the trains primarily served the British, for redeployment of their forces. The Irgun also publicized leaflets, in three languages, not to use specific trains in danger of being attacked. For a while the British stopped train traffic at night. The Irgun also carried out repeated attacks against military and police traffic using disguised, electronically-detonated roadside mines which could be detonated by an operator hiding nearby as a vehicle passed, carried out arms raids against military bases and police stations (often disguised as British soldiers), launched bombing, shooting, and mortar attacks against military and police installations and checkpoints, and robbed banks to gain funds as a result of losing access to Haganah funding following the collapse of the Jewish Resistance Movement.[21]On October 31, 1946, in response to the British barring entry of Jews from Palestine, the Irgun blew up the British embassy inRome, a center of British efforts to monitor and stop Jewish immigration. The Irgun also carried out a few other operations in Europe: a British troop train was derailed and an attempt against another troop train failed. An attack on a British officers club inViennatook place in 1947, and an attack on another British officer\'s club in Vienna and a sergeant\'s club inGermanytook place in 1948.[19]In December 1946 a sentence of 18 years and 18 beatings was handed down to a young Irgun member. The Irgun made good on a threat they made and after the detainee was whipped, Irgun members kidnapped British officers and beat them in public. The operation, known as the \"Night of the Beatings\" brought an end to British punitive beatings. The British, taking these acts seriously, moved many British families in Palestine into the confines of military bases, and some moved home.Arab bus after a bomb attack by the Irgun, 29 December 1947On February 14, 1947,Ernest Bevinannounced that the Jews and Arabs would not be able to agree on any British proposed solution for the land, and therefore the issue must be brought to theUnited Nations(UN) for a final decision. The Yishuv thought of the idea to transfer the issue to the UN as a British attempt to achieve delay while a UN inquiry commission would be established, and its ideas discussed, and all the while the Yishuv would weaken.Foundation for Immigration Bincreased the number of ships bringing in Jewish refugees. The British still strictly enforced the policy of limited Jewish immigration and illegal immigrants were placed in detention camps inCyprus, which increased the anger of the Jewish community towards the mandate government.The Irgun stepped up its activity and from February 19 until March 3 it attacked 18 British military camps, convoy routes, vehicles, and other facilities. The most notable of these attacks was the bombing of a British officer\'s club located in Goldschmidt House in Jerusalem, which was in a heavily guarded security zone. Covered by machine-gun fire, an Irgun assault team in a truck penetrated the security zone and lobbed explosives into the building.[48]Thirteen people, including two officers, were killed.[21]As a result, martial law was imposed over much of the country, enforced by approximately 20,000 British soldiers. Despite this, attacks continued throughout the martial law period. The most notable one was an Irgun attack against the Royal Army Pay Corps base at theSchneller Orphanage, in which a British soldier was killed.[21]Throughout its struggle against the British, the Irgun sought to publicize its cause around the world. By humiliating the British, it attempted to focus global attention on Palestine, hoping that any British overreaction would be widely reported, and thus result in more political pressure against the British. Begin described this strategy as turning Palestine into a \"glass house\". The Irgun also re-established many representative offices internationally, and by 1948 operated in 23 states. In these countries the Irgun sometimes acted against the local British representatives or led public relations campaigns against Britain. According toBruce Hoffman: \"In an era long before the advent of 24/7 global news coverage and instantaneous satellite-transmitted broadcasts, the Irgun deliberately attempted to appeal to a worldwide audience far beyond the immediate confines of its local struggle, and beyond even the ruling regime\'s own homeland.\"[19][21]Executed Members of the Irgun· Shlomo Ben-Yosef· Dov Gruner· Mordechai Alkahi· Yehiel Dresner· Eliezer Kashani· Yaakov Weiss· Avshalom Haviv· Meir NakarThe Acre Prison break[edit]Main article:Acre Prison breakOn April 16, 1947, Dov Gruner, Yehiel Dresner, Eliezer Kashani, and Mordechai El\'kachi were hanged, while singingHatikvah. On April 21Meir Feinsteinand Lehi memberMoshe Barazaniblew themselves up, using animprovised explosive device(IED), hours before their scheduled hanging. And on May 4 one of the Irgun\'s largest operations took place – the raid of the prison in the citadel inAcre. The operation was carried out by 23 men, commanded byDov Cohen– AKA \"Shimshon\", along with the help of the Irgun andLehiprisoners inside the prison. The raid allowed 41 underground members to escape, although some were caught outside of the prison, and some were killed in the escape. Along with the underground movement members, other criminals – including 214 Arabs[49]– also escaped. Five of the attackers were caught and three of them –Avshalom Haviv,Meir Nakar, andYaakov Weiss, were sentenced to death.The Sergeants affair[edit]Main article:The Sergeants affairTwo British sergeants hanged by the IrgunAfter the death sentences of the three were confirmed, the Irgun tried to save them by kidnappinghostages— British sergeants Clifford Martin and Mervyn Paice — in the streets ofNetanya. British forces closed off and combed the area in search of the two, but did not find them. On July 29, 1947, in the afternoon, Meir Nakar, Avshalom Haviv, and Yaakov Weiss were executed. Approximately thirteen hours later the hostages were hanged in retaliation by the Irgun and their bodies, booby-trapped with an explosive, afterwards strung up from trees in woodlands south of Netanya. This action caused an outcry in Britain and was condemned both there and by Jewish leaders in Palestine.[50]This episode has been given as a major influence on the British decision to terminate the Mandate and leave Palestine. TheUnited Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP)was also influenced by this and other actions. At the same time another incident was developing – the events of the shipExodus 1947. The 4,500 Holocaust survivors on board were not allowed to enter Palestine. UNSCOP also covered the events. Some of its members were even present atHaifaport when the putative immigrants were forcefully removed from their ship (later found to have been rigged with an IED by some of its passengers) onto the deportation ships, and later commented that this strong image helped them press for an immediate solution for Jewish immigration and the question of Palestine.Two weeks later, the House of Commons convened for a special debate on events in Palestine, and concluded that their soldiers should be withdrawn as soon as possible.The 1948 Palestine War[edit]Main article:1948 Palestine WarMenachem Beginwith Irgun members, 1948Irgun fighters training in 1947Irgun parade in 1948UNSCOP\'s conclusion was a unanimous decision to end the British mandate and majority opinion to divide theMandatory Palestine(the land west of theJordan River) between a Jewish state and an Arab state. During the UN\'s deliberations regarding the committee\'s recommendations the Irgun avoided initiating any attacks, so as not to influence the UN negatively on the idea of a Jewish state. On November 29 theUN General Assemblyvoted in favor of ending the mandate andestablishing two stateson the land. That very same day the Irgun and the Lehi renewed their attacks on British targets. The next day the local Arabs began attacking the Jewish community, thus beginning the first stage of the1948 Palestine War. The first attacks on Jews were in Jewish neighborhoods ofJerusalem, in and aroundJaffa,Bat Yam,Holon, and theHa\'Tikvahneighborhood inTel Aviv.In the autumn of 1947 the Irgun membership was approximately 4,000 people. The goal of the organization at that point was the conquest of the land between the Jordan River and theMediterranean Seafor the sake of the future Jewish state and preventing theArab Legionfrom driving out the Jewish community. The Irgun became almost an overt organization, establishing military bases inRamat GanandPetah Tikva. It began recruiting openly, thus significantly increasing in size. During the war the Irgun fought alongside the Lehi and the Haganah in the front against the Arab attacks. At first the Haganah maintained a defensive policy, as it had until then, but after theConvoy of 35incident it completely abandoned its policy of restraint: \"Distinguishing between individuals is no longer possible, for now – it is a war, and the even the innocent shall not be absolved.\"[51]The Irgun also began carrying out reprisal missions, as it had under David Raziel\'s command. At the same time though, it published announcements calling on the Arabs to lay down their weapons and maintain a ceasefire:The National Military Organization has warned you, if the murderous attacks on Jewish civilians shall continue, its soldiers will penetrate your centers of activity and plague you. You have not heeded the warning. You continued to harm our brothers and murder them in wild cruelty. Therefore soldiers of the National Military Organization will go on the attack, as we have warned you.... However even in these frenzied time, when Arab and Jewish blood is spilled at the British enslaver, we hereby call upon you ... to stop the attacks and create peace between us. We do not want a war with you. We are certain that neither do you want a war with us....[52]However the mutual attacks continued. The Irgun attacked the Arab villages ofTiranearHaifa,Yehudiya(\'Abassiya) in the center, andShuafatby Jerusalem. The Irgun also attacked in theWadi Rushmiyaneighborhood in Haifa andAbu Kabirin Jaffa. On December 29 Irgun units arrived by boat to the Jaffa shore and a gunfight between them and Arab gangs ensued. The following day a bomb was thrown from a speeding Irgun car at a group of Arab men waiting to be hired for the day at the Haifa oil refinery, resulting in seven Arabs killed, and dozens injured. In response, some Arab workersattacked Jews in the area, killing 41. This sparked a Haganah response inBalad al-Sheykh, which resulted in the deaths of 60 civilians. The Irgun\'s goal in the fighting was to move the battles from Jewish populated areas to Arab populated areas. On January 1, 1948 the Irgun attacked again in Jaffa, its men entering the city dressed as British troops; later in the month it attacked inBeit Nabala, a base for many Arab fighters. On 5 January 1948 the Irgun detonated a lorry bomb outside Jaffa\'s Ottoman built Town Hall, killing 14 and injuring 19.[53]In Jerusalem, two days later, Irgun members in a stolen police van rolled a barrel bomb[54]into a large group of civilians who were waiting for a bus by theJaffa Gate, killing around sixteen.[55]In the pursuit that followed three of the attackers were killed and two taken prisoner.[56]On 6 April 1948, the Irgun raided the British Army camp atPardes Hannakilling six British soldiers and their commanding officer.[57]TheDeir Yassin massacrewas carried out in a village west of Jerusalem that had signed a non-belligerency pact with its Jewish neighbors and the Haganah, and repeatedly had barred entry to foreign irregulars.[58][59]On 9 April approximately 120 Irgun and Lehi members began an operation to capture the village. During the operation, the villagers fiercely resisted the attack, and a battle broke out. In the end, the Irgun and Lehi forces advanced gradually through house-to-house fighting. The village was only taken after the Irgun began systematically dynamiting houses, and after a Palmach unit intervened and employed mortar fire to silence the villagers\' sniper positions.[19][60]The operation resulted in five Jewish fighters dead and 40 injured. Some 100 to 120 villagers were also killed.[61]There are allegations that Irgun and Lehi forces committed war crimes during and after the capture of the village. These allegations include reports that fleeing individuals and families were fired at, and prisoners of war were killed after their capture. A Haganah report writes:The conquest of the village was carried out with great cruelty. Whole families – women, old people, children – were killed. ... Some of the prisoners moved to places of detention, including women and children, were murdered viciously by their captors.[62]Some say that this incident was an event that accelerated the Arab exodus from Palestine.[63]The Irgun cooperated with the Haganah in the conquest of Haifa. At the regional commander\'s request, on April 21 the Irgun took over an Arab post above Hadar Ha\'Carmel as well as the Arab neighborhood of Wadi Nisnas, adjacent to the Lower City.The Irgun acted independently in the conquest of Jaffa (part of the proposed Arab State according to theUN Partition Plan). On April 25 Irgun units, about 600 strong, left the Irgun base inRamat Gantowards Arab Jaffa. Difficult battles ensued, and the Irgun faced resistance from the Arabs as well as the British.[64]Under the command ofAmichai \"Gidi\" Paglin, the Irgun\'s chief operations officer, the Irgun captured the neighborhood of Manshiya, which threatened the city ofTel Aviv. Afterwards the force continued to the sea, towards the area of the port, and using mortars, shelled the southern neighborhoods.The Manshiya quarter betweenJaffaand Tel Aviv after the Irgun mortar bombardment.In his report concerning the fall of Jaffa the local Arab military commander, Michel Issa, writes: \'Continuous shelling with mortars of the city by Jews for four days, beginning 25 April, [...] caused inhabitants of city, unaccustomed to such bombardment, to panic and flee.\'[65]According to Morris the shelling was done by the Irgun. Their objective was \'to prevent constant military traffic in the city, to break the spirit of the enemy troops [and] to cause chaos among the civilian population in order to create a mass flight\'.[66]High Commissioner Cunningham wrote a few days later \'It should be made clear that IZL attack with mortars was indiscriminate and designed to create panic among the civilian inhabitants\'.[66]The British demanded the evacuation of the newly conquered city, and militarily intervened, ending the Irgun offensive. Heavy British shelling against Irgun positions in Jaffa failed to dislodge them, and when British armor pushed into the city, the Irgun resisted; a bazooka team managed to knock out one tank, buildings were blown up and collapsed onto the streets as the armor advanced, and Irgun men crawled up and tossed live dynamite sticks onto the tanks. The British withdrew, and opened negotiations with the Jewish authorities.[19]An agreement was worked out, under which Operation Hametz would be stopped and the Haganah would not attack Jaffa until the end of the Mandate. The Irgun would evacuate Menashiya, with Haganah fighters replacing them. British troops would patrol its southern end and occupy the police fort. The Irgun, which had previously agreed with the Haganah that British pressure would not lead to withdrawal from Jaffa and that custody of captured areas would be turned over to the Haganah. The city ultimately fell on May 13 after Haganah forces entered the city and took control of the rest of the city, from the south – part of theHametz Operationwhich included the conquest of a number of villages in the area. The battles in Jaffa were a great victory for the Irgun. This operation was the largest in the history of the organization, which took place in highly built up area that had many militants in shooting positions. During the battles explosives were used in order to break into homes and continue forging a way though them. Furthermore, this was the first occasion in which the Irgun had directly fought British forces, reinforced with armor and heavy weaponry. The city began these battles with an Arab population estimated at 70,000, which shrank to some 4,100 Arab residents by the end of major hostilities. Since the Irgun captured the neighborhood of Manshiya on its own, causing the flight of many of Jaffa\'s residents, the Irgun took credit for the conquest of Jaffa. It had lost 42 dead and about 400 wounded during the battle.[19]Integration with the IDF and the Altalena Affair[edit]Main article:Altalena AffairOn May 14, 1948the establishmentof theState of Israelwas proclaimed. The declaration of independence was followed by the establishment of theIsrael Defense Forces(IDF), and the process of absorbing all military organizations into the IDF started. On June 1, an agreement had been signed BetweenMenachem BeginandYisrael Galilifor the absorption of the Irgun into the IDF. One of the clauses stated that the Irgun had to stop smuggling arms. Meanwhile, in France, Irgun representatives purchased a ship, renamedAltalena(a pseudonym ofZe\'ev Jabotinsky), and weapons. The ship sailed on June 11 and arrived at the Israeli coast on June 20 in violation of the four-week ceasefire agreement in the ongoing war with the neighbouring Arab states and theUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 50.When the ship arrived the Israeli government, headed by Ben-Gurion, was adamant in its demand that the Irgun surrender and hand over all of the weapons. Ben-Gurion said: \"We must decide whether to hand over power to Begin or to order him to cease his activities. If he does not do so, we will open fire! Otherwise, we must decide to disperse our own army.\"Altalenaon fire after quelling of the Irgun\'s attempt to smuggle weapons into the war zone in violation of ceasefire agreement andUN SC resolution #50There were two confrontations between the newly formed IDF and the Irgun: whenAltalenareachedKfar Vitkinin the late afternoon of Sunday, June 20 many Irgun militants, including Begin, waited on the shore. A clash with theAlexandroni Brigade, commanded by Dan Even (Epstein), occurred. Fighting ensued and there were a number of casualties on both sides. The clash ended in a ceasefire and the transfer of the weapons on shore to the local IDF commander, and with the ship, now reinforced with local Irgun members, including Begin, sailing to Tel Aviv, where the Irgun had more supporters. Many Irgun members, who joined the IDF earlier that month, left their bases and concentrated on the Tel Aviv beach. A confrontation between them and the IDF units started. In response, Ben-Gurion orderedYigael Yadin(acting Chief of Staff) to concentrate large forces on the Tel Aviv beach and to take the ship by force. Heavy guns were transferred to the area and at four in the afternoon, Ben-Gurion ordered the shelling of theAltalena. One of the shells hit the ship, which began to burn. Sixteen Irgun fighters were killed in the confrontation with the army; six were killed in the Kfar Vitkin area and ten onTel Aviv beach. Three IDF soldiers were killed: two at Kfar Vitkin and one in Tel Aviv.After the shelling of theAltalena, more than 200 Irgun fighters were arrested. Most of them were freed several weeks later. The Irgun militants were then fully integrated with the IDF and not kept in separate units.The initial agreement for the integration of the Irgun into the IDF did not includeJerusalem, where a small remnant of the Irgun called theJerusalem Battalion, numbering around 400 fighters, and Lehi, continued to operate independently of the government. Following the assassination of UN Envoy for PeaceFolke Bernadotteby Lehi in September 1948, the Israeli government determined to immediately dismantle the underground organizations. An ultimatum was issued to the Irgun to liquidate itself and integrate into the IDF or be destroyed. The Irgun accepted the ultimatum, and shortly afterward, it\'s fighters began enlisting in the IDF and turning over their arms.[67]Criticism[edit]The Irgun museum inTel Aviv.References to the Irgun as aterroristorganization came from sources including theAnglo-American Committee of a number of prominent world and Jewish figures.[74][75][76]Leaders within the mainstream Jewish organizations, theJewish Agency,HaganahandHistadrut, as well as the British authorities, routinely condemned Irgun operations asterrorismand branded it an illegal organization as a result of the group\'s attacks oncivilian targets.[73]However, privately at least the Haganah kept a dialogue with the dissident groups.[77]Ironically, in early 1947, \"the British army in Mandate Palestine banned the use of the term \'terrorist\' to refer to the Irgun zvai Leumi ... because it implied that British forces had reason to be terrified.\"[78]Irgun attacks prompted a formal declaration from theWorld Zionist Congressin 1946, which strongly condemned \"the shedding of innocent blood as a means of political warfare.\"[79]The Israeli government, in September 1948, acting in response to the assassination of CountFolke Bernadotte, outlawed the Irgun andLehigroups, declaring them terrorist organizations under the Prevention of Terrorism Ordinance.[3]In 1948,The New York Timespublished a letter signed by a number of prominent Jewish figures includingHannah Arendt,Albert Einstein,Sidney Hook, andRabbiJessurun Cardozo, which described Irgun as \"a in Palestine\".[80][81][82]The letter went on to state that Irgun and the Stern gang \"inaugurated a reign of terror in the Palestine Jewish community. Teachers were beaten up for speaking against them, adults were shot for not letting their children join them. By gangster methods, beatings, window-smashing, and widespread robberies, the terrorists intimidated the population and exacted a heavy tribute.\"[76]Soon after World War II, Winston Churchill said \"we should never have stopped immigration before the war\", but that the Irgun were \"the vilestgangsters\" and that he would \"never forgive the Irgun terrorists.\"[74]AUS military intelligencereport, dated January 1948, described Irgun recruiting tactics amongstDisplaced Persons(DP) in the camps across Germany:\'Irgun ... seems to be concentrating on the DP police force. This is an old technique in Eastern Europe and in all police states. By controlling the police, a small, unscrupulous group of determined people can impose its will on a peaceful and inarticulate majority; it is done by threats, intimidation, by violence and if need be bloodshed ... they have embarked upon a course of violence within the camps.\'[83]Clare Hollingworth, theDaily TelegraphandThe Scotsmancorrespondent in Jerusalem during 1948 wrote several outspoken reports after spending several weeks inWest Jerusalem:Irgun is in fact rapidly becoming the \'SS\' of the new state. There is also a strong \'Gestapo\' – but no-one knows who is in it.\'The shopkeepers are afraid not so much of shells as of raids by Irgun Zvai Leumi and the Stern Gang. These young toughs, who are beyond whatever law there is have cleaned out most private houses of the richer classes & started to prey upon the shopkeepers.\'— Clare Hollingworthreporting on West Jerusalem June 2, 1948[84][85]In 2006, Simon McDonald, the British ambassador in Tel Aviv, and John Jenkins, the Consul-General in Jerusalem, wrote in response to a pro-Irgun commemoration of theKing David Hotel bombing: \"We do not think that it is right for an act of terrorism, which led to the loss of many lives, to be commemorated.\" They also called for the removal of plaques at the site which presented as a fact that the deaths were due to the British ignoring warning calls. The plaques, in their original version, read:Warning phone calls had been made urging the hotel\'s occupants to leave immediately. For reasons known only to the British the hotel was not evacuated and after 25 minutes the bombs exploded, and to the Irgun\'s regret and dismay 91 persons were killed.McDonald and Jenkins said that no such warning calls were made, adding that even if they had, \"this does not absolve those who planted the bomb from responsibility for the deaths.\"[71]Ha\'aretzcolumnist and Israeli historianTom Segevwrote of the Irgun: \"In the second half of 1940, a few members of the Irgun Zvai Leumi (National Military Organization) – the anti-British terrorist group sponsored by the Revisionists and known by its acronym Etzel, and to the British simply as the Irgun – made contact with representatives of Fascist Italy, offering to cooperate against the British.\"[75]Alan Dershowitzwrote in his bookThe Case for Israelthat unlike the Haganah, the policy of the Irgun had been to encourage the flight of local Arabs.[86]See also[edit]· Konrad Adenauer (Assassination attempt)· Jewish religious terrorism· List of Irgun attacks· List of notable Irgun members· Nationalist terrorism· Zionist political violence 3658
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