1920\'s vintage AUTOGRAPH PHOTO GENERAL JOHN J PERSHING U.S. ARMY SIGNED

1920\'s vintage AUTOGRAPH PHOTO GENERAL JOHN J PERSHING U.S. ARMY SIGNED

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1920\'s vintage AUTOGRAPH PHOTO GENERAL JOHN J PERSHING U.S. ARMY SIGNED :
$98.00

i bought a nice collection of autograph photos from a old dallas estate. the family was originally from washington d.c. and were well known in political and military circles. the photos are in their original frames. this photo dates to early 1920\'s, personally signed by U.S. ARMY GENERAL JOHN J PERSHING. the photo measures approx 6x9 and frame measure 9.5x13 inches. the typed note attached to back of photo describes the circumstances in which the autograph was acquired. a fine addition to your collection. 10.00 SHIPPING. I combine shipping. PAYPAL. good luck. mike

General of the ArmiesJohn Joseph\"Black Jack\"Pershing(September 13, 1860 – July 15, 1948) was a seniorUnited States Armyofficer, most famous as the commander of theAmerican Expeditionary Force(AEF) on theWestern FrontinWorld War I, 1917–18. He rejected British and French demands that American forces be integrated with their armies, and insisted that the AEF would operate as a single unit under his command, although some American divisions fought under British command, and he also allowed all-black units to be integrated with the French army.

American forces first saw serious battle atCantigny,Chateau-Thierry,Belleau Wood, andSoissons. To speed up the arrival of thedoughboys, they embarked for France leaving the heavy equipment behind, and used British and French tanks, artillery, airplanes and other munitions. In September 1918 atSt. Mihiel, theFirst Armywas directly under Pershing\'s command; it overwhelmed thesalient– the encroachment intoAlliedterritory – that theGerman Armyhad held for three years. For theMeuse-Argonne Offensive, Pershing shifted roughly 600,000 American soldiers to the heavily defended forests of the Argonne, keeping his divisions engaged in hard fighting for 47 days, alongside the French. TheAlliedHundred Days Offensive, which the Argonne fighting was part of, contributed to Germany calling for anarmistice. Pershing was of the opinion that the war should continue and that all of Germany should be occupied in an effort to permanently destroy German militarism.

Pershing is the only American to be promoted in his own lifetime toGeneral of the Armies, the highest possible rank in the United States Army; an act was passed in 1976 retroactively promotingGeorge Washingtonto the same rank but with higher seniority, ensuring that he would always be considered the senior ranking officer in the United States Army. Allowed to select his own insignia, Pershing chose to use four gold stars to distinguish himself from those officers who held the rank ofGeneral.[3]After the creation of the five-starGeneral of the Armyrank duringWorld War II, his rank of General of the Armies could unofficially be considered that of asix-star general, but he died before the proposed insignia could be considered and acted on byCongress.

Some of his tactics have been criticized both by other commanders at the time and by modern historians. His reliance on costlyfrontal assaults, long after other Allied armies had abandoned such tactics, has been blamed for causing unnecessarily high American casualties.[4]In addition to leading the A.E.F. to victory in World War I, Pershing notably served as a mentor to many in the generation of generals who led the United States Army duringWorld War II, includingGeorge Marshall,Dwight D. Eisenhower,Omar Bradley,George S. Patton, andDouglas MacArthur.[5][6]

Contents[hide]
  • 1Early life
  • 2West Point years
  • 3Early career
  • 4West Point instructor
  • 5Spanish– and Philippine–American wars
  • 6Rise to general
  • 7Pancho Villa and Mexico
    • 7.1Death of wife and children
    • 7.2Relationship with Nita Patton
    • 7.3Commander of Villa expedition
  • 8World War I
    • 8.1Battle of Hamel
    • 8.2African-American units
  • 9World War I: 1918 and full American participation
  • 10Later career
  • 11Death
  • 12Family
  • 13Summary of service
    • 13.1Dates of rank
    • 13.2Highest World War II rank proposed
    • 13.3Assignment history
    • 13.4Honors and awards
      • 13.4.1United States decorations and medals
      • 13.4.2International awards
      • 13.4.3Civilian awards
  • 14Other honors and miscellany
  • 15In popular culture
  • 16See also
  • 17References
  • 18External links

Early life[edit]

Pershing was born on a farm nearLaclede, Missouri, to businessman John Fletcher Pershing and homemaker Ann Elizabeth Thompson. Pershing\'s great-great-grandfather, Frederick Pershing, whose name originally was Pfersching,emigrated from Alsace, leavingAmsterdamon the shipJacob, and arriving inPhiladelphiaon October 2, 1749. Pershing\'s mother was ofEnglish descent. He also had five siblings: brothers James F. (1862–1933) and Ward (1874–1909), and sisters Mary Elizabeth (1864–1928), Anna May (1867–1955) and Grace (1867–1903); three other children died in infancy.[7][8][9]When theCivil Warbegan, his father supported theUnionand was asutlerfor the18th Missouri Volunteer Infantry.

Pershing attended a school in Laclede that was reserved for precocious students who were also the children of prominent citizens. Completing high school in 1878, he became a teacher of localAfrican Americanchildren.

In 1880, Pershing entered the North Missouri Normal School (nowTruman State University) inKirksville, Missouri. Two years later, he applied to theUnited States Military Academy. Pershing later admitted that serving in the military was secondary to attending West Point, and he had applied because the education offered was better than that obtainable in rural Missouri.

West Point years[edit]Pershing as a cadet in 1886

Pershing was sworn in as a West Point cadet in the fall of 1882. He was selected early for leadership and became successively First Corporal, First Sergeant, First Lieutenant, and First Captain, the highest possible cadet rank. Pershing also commanded,ex officio,the West Point Honor Guard that escorted the funeral procession ofPresidentUlysses S. Grant.

Pershing graduated from West Point in the summer of 1886 and was commended by the Superintendent of West Point, GeneralWesley Merritt, for high leadership skills and possessing \"superb ability\".

Pershing briefly considered petitioning the Army to let him study law and delay his commission. He applied for a furlough from West Point, but soon withdrew the request in favor of active Army duty. He was commissioned aSecond Lieutenantin theUnited States Armyin 1886, at age 26, graduating 30th in a class of 77.

Early career[edit]

Pershing reported for active duty on September 30, 1886, and was assigned to Troop L of the6th U.S. Cavalrystationed atFort Bayard, in theNew Mexico Territory. While serving in the 6th Cavalry, Pershing participated in severalIndian campaignsand was cited for bravery for actions against theApache. During his time atFort Stanton, Pershing and close friends Lt. Julius Penn and Lt.Richard B. Paddockwere nicknamed \"The Three Green P\'s,\" spending their leisure time hunting and attending Hispanic dances. Pershing\'s sister Grace married Paddock in 1890.[10]

Between 1887 and 1890, Pershing served with the 6th Cavalry at various postings inCalifornia,Arizona, andNorth Dakota. He also became an expert marksman and, in 1891, was rated second in pistol and fifth in rifle out of all soldiers in the U.S. Army.

On December 9, 1890, Pershing and the 6th Cavalry arrived atSioux City, Iowa, where Pershing played a role in suppressing the last uprisings of theLakota (Sioux)Indians. Though he and his unit did not participate in theWounded Knee Massacre, they did fight three days after it on January 1, 1891 when Sioux warriors attacked the 6th Cavalry\'s supply wagons. When the Sioux began firing at the wagons, Pershing and his troops heard the shots, and rode more than six miles to the location of the attack. The cavalry fired at the forces of Chief War Eagle, causing them to retreat. This would be the only occasion where Pershing would see action in the Ghost Dance campaign.[11]

In September 1891 he was assigned as the Professor of Military Science and Tactics at theUniversity of Nebraska-Lincoln, a position he held until 1895. While in Nebraska, Pershing attended law school and graduated in 1893. He formed a drill company of chosen university cadets, Company A. In March 1892, it won the Maiden Prize competition of the National Competitive Drills inOmaha, Nebraska. The Citizens of Omaha presented the company with a large silver cup, the \"Omaha Cup.\" On October 2, 1894, former members of Company A established a fraternal military drill organization named the Varsity Rifles. The group renamed itself thePershing Riflesin 1895 in honor of its mentor and patron. Pershing maintained a close relationship with Pershing Rifles for the remainder of his life.[citation needed]

On October 20, 1892,[12]Pershing was promoted tofirst lieutenantand in 1895 took command of a troop of the10th Cavalry Regiment, one of the originalBuffalo Soldierregiments composed of African-American soldiers under white officers. FromFort Assinniboinein north centralMontana, he commanded an expedition to the south and southwest that rounded up and deported a large number ofCree IndianstoCanada.

West Point instructor[edit]Captain John J. Pershing, c.1902Pershing with his wife Helen and three of their children

In 1897, Pershing was appointed to the West Point tactical staff as an instructor, where he was assigned to Cadet Company A. Because of his strictness and rigidity, Pershing was unpopular with the cadets, who took to calling him \"NiggerJack\" because of his service with the10th Cavalry Regiment, a now famous unit formed as a segregated African-American unit and one of the original \"Buffalo Soldier\" regiments.[13][14][15]

During the course of his tour at theAcademy, this epithet softened to \"Black Jack,\" although, according to Vandiver, \"the intent remained hostile.\"[13]Still, this nickname would stick with Pershing for the rest of his life, and was known to the public as early as 1917.[16]

Spanish– and Philippine–American wars[edit]

At the start of theSpanish–American War, First Lieutenant Pershing was the regimental quartermaster for10th Cavalry Regiment(Buffalo Soldiers) and fought with the unit on Kettle andSan Juan HillinCubaand was cited for gallantry. In 1919, he was awarded theSilver Citation Starfor these actions, and in 1932 the award was upgraded to theSilver Stardecoration. A commanding officer here commented on Pershing\'s calm demeanor under fire, saying he was \"cool as a bowl of cracked ice.\".[17]Pershing also served with the 10th Cavalry during the siege and surrender ofSantiago de Cuba.

Pershing was commissioned as a major of United States Volunteers on August 26, 1898, and assigned as an ordnance officer. He was honorably discharged from the volunteers and reverted to his permanent rank of first lieutenant on May 12, 1899. Soon after, he was again commissioned as a major of Volunteers on June 6, 1899, as an assistant adjutant general.

In March 1899, after suffering frommalaria, Pershing was put in charge of the Office of Customs and Insular Affairs which oversaw occupation forces in territories gained in the Spanish–American War, including Cuba,Puerto Rico, thePhilippines, andGuam.

When thePhilippine–American Warbegan, Pershing was either ordered or requested transfer toManila.[18]He reported on August 17, 1899, as a major of Volunteers and was assigned to the Department ofMindanaoandJoloand commanded efforts to suppress theFilipino Insurrection. On November 27, 1900, Pershing was appointed Adjutant General of his department and served in this posting until March 1, 1901. He was cited for bravery for actions on theCagayan Riverwhile attempting to destroy a Philippine stronghold atMacajambo.

On June 30, 1901, Pershing was honorably discharged from the Volunteers and he reverted to the rank of captain in theRegular Armyto which he had been promoted on February 2, 1901. He served with the1st Cavalry Regimentin the Philippines. He later was assigned to the15th Cavalry Regiment, serving as an intelligence officer and participating in actionsagainst the Moros. He was cited for bravery atLake Lanao. In June 1901, he served as Commander of Camp Vicars in Lanao, Philippines, after the previous camp commander had been promoted tobrigadier general.

Rise to general[edit]

In June 1903, Pershing was ordered to return to the United States. PresidentTheodore Roosevelt, taken by Pershing\'s ability, petitioned the Army General Staff to promote Pershing tocolonel. At the time, Army officer promotions were based primarily on seniority rather than merit,[17]and although there was widespread acknowledgment that Pershing should serve as a colonel, the Army General Staff declined to change their seniority-based promotion tradition just to accommodate Pershing. They would not consider a promotion tolieutenant colonelor evenmajor. This angered Roosevelt, but since the President could only name and promote army officers in the General ranks, his options for recognizing Pershing through promotion were limited.

Portrait of Pershing byLéon Hornecker(1903)

In 1904, Pershing was assigned as the Assistant Chief of Staff of the Southwest Army Division stationed atOklahoma City, Oklahoma. In October 1904, he attended theArmy War College, and then was ordered toWashington, D.C.for \"general duties unassigned.\"

Since Roosevelt could not yet promote Pershing, he petitioned theUnited States Congressto authorize a diplomatic posting, and Pershing was stationed asmilitary attachéinTokyoin 1905. Also in 1905, Pershing married Helen Frances Warren, the daughter of powerfulU.S. SenatorFrancis E. Warren, aWyomingRepublicanand chairman of the U.S. Military Appropriations Committee. This union helped his military career.[19]

After serving as anobserver in the Russo-Japanese Warattached to GeneralKuroki Tamemoto\'sJapanese First ArmyinManchuriafrom March to September,[20]Pershing returned to the United States in the fall of 1905. President Roosevelt employed his presidential prerogative and nominated Pershing as abrigadier general, a move which Congress approved. In skipping three ranks and more than 835 officers senior to him, the promotion gave rise to accusations that Pershing\'s appointment was the result of political connections and not military abilities.[21]However, several other junior officers were similarly advanced to brigadier general ahead of their peers and seniors, includingAlbert L. Mills(captain),Tasker H. Bliss(major), andLeonard Wood(captain). Pershing\'s promotion, while unusual, was not unprecedented, and had the support of many soldiers who admired his abilities.[22][23]

In 1908, Pershing briefly served as a U.S. military observer in theBalkans, an assignment which was based inParis. Upon returning to the United States at the end of 1909, Pershing was assigned once again to the Philippines, an assignment in which he served until 1913. While in the Philippines, he served as Commander ofFort McKinley, near Manila, and also was the governor of the Moro Province. The last of Pershing\'s four children was born in the Philippines, and during this time he became anEpiscopalian.

In 1913 Pershing was recommended for theMedal of Honorfollowing his actions at theBattle of Bud Bagsak.[24]He wrote to theAdjutant Generalto request that the recommendation not be acted on, though the board which considered the recommendation had already voted no before receiving Pershing\'s letter.[25]In 1922 a further review of this event resulted in Pershing being recommended for theDistinguished Service Cross, but as theArmy Chief of StaffPershing disapproved the action.[26]In 1940 Pershing received the Distinguished Service Cross for his heroism at Bud Bagsak, with PresidentFranklin D. Rooseveltpresenting it in a ceremony timed to coincide with Pershing\'s 80th birthday.[27]

During this period Pershing\'s reputation for both stern discipline and effective leadership continued to grow, with one experienced old soldier under his command later saying Pershing was an \"S.O.B.\" and that he hated Pershing\'s guts, but that \"as a soldier, the ones then and the ones now couldn\'t polish his (Pershing\'s) boots.\"[28]

Pancho Villa and MexicoMain article:Pancho Villa ExpeditionGeneralsObregón,Villa, and Pershing, August 1914. A year later, Pershing\'s wife and three of his children died, and Villa sent him condolences. Six months later, Pershing chased Villa in Mexico.Nita Patton was engaged to Pershing in 1917-18.Postcard of Pershing\'s camp at Fort Bliss.

On December 20, 1913, Pershing received orders to take command of the 8th Brigade at thePresidioinSan Francisco. With tensions running high on the border between the United States and Mexico, the brigade was deployed toFort Bliss, Texason April 24, 1914, arriving there on the 27th.[29]

Death of wife and children

After a year at Fort Bliss, Pershing decided to take his family there. The arrangements were almost complete, when on the morning of August 27, 1915, he received a telegram informing him of a fire in thePresidioinSan Francisco, where a lacquered floor caught fire and the flames rapidly spread, resulting in the smoke inhalation deaths of his wife, Helen Frances Warren, and three young daughters, Mary, age 3, Anne, age 7, and Helen, age 8. Only his 6-year-old son Francis Warren survived.[30][31]After the funerals at Lakeview Cemetery in Cheyenne, Wyoming, Pershing returned to Fort Bliss with his son, Warren, and his sister May, and resumed his duties as commanding officer.[32][33]

Relationship with Nita Patton

Two years after the death of his wife and children, Pershing courted Anne Wilson \"Nita\" Patton, the younger sister of his protégé,George S. Patton.[34]Pershing met her when she traveled to Fort Bliss to visit her brother,[35]and he introduced them.[35]Pershing and Nita Patton soon began a relationship; they became engaged in 1917, but their separation because of Pershing\'s time in France during World War I ended it.[34][35]Pershing had wartime affairs, including one with an artist who painted his portrait, and he later expressed regret that he had let Nita Patton \"get away\".[36]She never married, and Pershing never remarried.[35]

Commander of Villa expedition[edit]

On March 15, 1916,[37][38][39]Pershing led an expedition into Mexico to capturePancho Villa. This expedition was ill-equipped and hampered by a lack of supplies due to the breakdown of the Quartermaster Corps. Although there had been talk of war on the border for years, no steps had been taken to provide for the handling of supplies for an expedition. Despite this and other hindrances, such as the lack of aid from the former Mexican government, and their refusal to allow American troops to transport troops and supplies over their railroads, Pershing organized and commanded theMexican Punitive Expedition, a combined armed force of 10,000 men that penetrated 350 miles (560km) into Mexico. They routed Villa\'s revolutionaries, but failed to capture him.[40][41]

World War IMajor General Pershing of theNational Army

At the start of the United States\' involvement inWorld War IPresidentWoodrow Wilsonconsidered mobilizing an army to join the fight.Frederick Funston, Pershing\'s superior in Mexico, was being considered for the top billet as the Commander of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) when he died suddenly from a heart attack on February 19, 1917. Following America\'s entrance into the war, Wilson, after a short interview, named Pershing to command. He was officially installed in the position on May 10, 1917, and held the post until 1918. Pershing, who was at the time amajor general, was promoted to full general – the first sincePhilip Sheridanin 1888 – in theNational Army, and was made responsible for the organization, training, and supply of a combined professional and draft Army and National Guard force that eventually grew from 27,000 inexperienced men to two Armies, with a third was forming as the war ended, totaling over two million soldiers.

Pershing exercised significant control over his command, with a full delegation of authority from Wilson andSecretary of WarNewton D. Baker. Baker, cognizant of the endless problems of domestic and allied political involvement in military decision making in wartime, gave Pershing unmatched authority to run his command as he saw fit. In turn, Pershing exercised his prerogative carefully, not engaging in politics or disputes over government policy that might distract him from his military mission. While earlier a champion of the African-American soldier, he did not advocate their full participation on the battlefield, understanding the general racial attitudes of white Americans. In addition, Wilson held reactionary views on race and owed political debts to southern Democratic politicians.

George Marshallserved as one of Pershing\'s top assistants during and after the war. Pershing\'s initial chief of staff wasJames Harbord, who later took a combat command but worked as Pershing\'s closest assistant for many years and remained extremely loyal to him.

Pershing saluting theMarquis de Lafayette\'s grave inParis

After departing fromFort JayatGovernors Islandin New York Harbor under top secrecy in May 1917, Pershing arrived in France in June 1917. In a show of American presence, part of the 16th Infantry Regiment marched through Paris shortly after his arrival. Pausing at the tomb ofGilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette, he was reputed to have uttered the famous line \"Lafayette, we are here,\" a line spoken, in fact, by his aide, ColonelCharles E. Stanton.[42]American forces were deployed in France in the autumn of 1917.

Pershing never remarried, but in September 1917 the French government commissioned a portrait of Pershing by 23-year-old Romanian artist, Micheline Resco. Pershing removed the stars and Flag from his car and sat up front with his chauffeur while traveling from his AEF headquarters to visit her by night in her apartment on the rue Descombes. Their friendship continued for the rest of his life.[43]

Battle of Hamel

For the first time in American history, Pershing allowed American soldiers to be under the command of a foreign power. In late June, GeneralRawlinson, commanding the British Fourth Army, suggested to Australian Lieutenant GeneralJohn Monashthat American involvement in a set-piece attack alongside the experienced Australians in the upcomingBattle of Hamelwould both give the American troops experience and also strengthen the Australian battalions by an additional company each. On June 29, General Bell, commanding the American 33rd Division, selected two companies each from the 131st and 132nd Infantry regiments of the 66th brigade. However, Monash had been promised ten companies of American troops and on June 30 the remaining companies of the 1st and 2nd battalions of the 131st regiment were sent. Each American platoon was attached to an Australian company. However, there was difficulty in integrating the American platoons (which numbered 60 men) amongst the Australian companies of 100 men. This difficulty was overcome by reducing the size of each American platoon by one-fifth and sending the troops thus removed, which numbered 50 officers and men, back to battalion reinforcement camps.

However, the day before the attack was scheduled to commence, Pershing learnt of the plan and ordered the withdrawal of six American companies.[44]While a few Americans, such as those attached to the 42nd Battalion, disobeyed the order, the majority, although disappointed, moved back to the rear. This meant that battalions had to rearrange their attack formations and caused a serious reduction in the size of the Allied force. For example, the 11th Brigade was now attacking with 2,200 men instead of 3,000.[45]There was a further last-minute call for the removal of all American troops from the attack, but Monash, who had chosen 4 July as the date of the attack out of \"deference\" to the US troops, protested to Rawlinson and received support from Field Marshal Douglas Haig, commander of the British Expeditionary Force.[46][47]The four American companies that had joined the Australians during the assault were withdrawn from the line after the battle and returned to their regiments, having gained valuable experience. Monash sent Bell his personal thanks, praising the Americans\' gallantry, while Pershing set out explicit instructions to ensure that US troops would not be employed in a similar manner again.[48]

African-American units[edit]

Undercivilian control of the military, Pershing adhered to the racial policies ofPresidentWoodrow Wilson,Secretary of WarNewton D. Baker, and southern Democrats who promoted the \"separate but equal\" doctrine. African-American \"Buffalo Soldiers\" units were not allowed to participate with theAmerican Expeditionary Force (AEF)duringWorld War I, but experiencednon-commissioned officerswere provided to other segregated black units for combat service—such as the317th Engineer Battalion.[49]The American Buffalo Soldiers of the92ndand93rd Infantry Divisionswere the first American soldiers to fight in France in 1918, but they did so under French command as Pershing had detached them from the AEF. Most regiments of the 92nd and all of the 93rd would continue to fight under French command for the duration of the war.[50]

World War I: 1918 and full American participationPershing at General Headquarters in Chaumont, France, October 1918.

In early 1918, entire divisions were beginning to serve on the front lines alongside French troops. Pershing insisted that the AEF fight as units under American command rather than being split up by battalions to augment British and French regiments and brigades (although the27thand30th Divisions, grouped underII Corpscommand, were loaned during thedesperate days of spring 1918, fought with the British/Australian/CanadianFourth Armyuntil the end of the war, taking part in the breach of theHindenburg Linein October).

In October 1918, Pershing saw the need for a dedicatedMilitary Police Corpsand the first U.S. Army MP School was established at Autun, France. For this, he is considered the founding father of the United States MPs.[51]

Because of the effects oftrench warfareon soldiers\' feet, in January 1918, Pershing oversaw the creation of an improvedcombat boot, the \"1918 Trench Boot,\" which became known as the \"Pershing Boot\" upon its introduction.[52]

American forces first saw serious action during the summer of 1918, contributing eight large divisions, alongside 24 French ones, at theSecond Battle of the Marne. Along with the British Fourth Army\'s victory atAmiens, the Allied victory at the Second Battle of the Marne marked the turning point of World War I on theWestern Front.

In August 1918 theU.S. First Armyhad been formed, first under Pershing\'s direct command and then by Lieutenant GeneralHunter Liggett, when theU.S. Second Armyunder Lieutenant GeneralRobert Bullardwas created. After a quick victory atSaint-Mihiel, east ofVerdun, some of the more bullish AEF commanders had hoped to push on eastwards toMetz, but this did not fit in with the plans of the Allied Supreme Commander,Marshal Foch, for three simultaneous offensives into the \"bulge\" of the Western Front (the other two being the Fourth Army\'s breach of the Hindenburg Line and an Anglo-Belgian offensive, led byPlumer\'sSecond Army, in Flanders). Instead, the AEF was required to redeploy and, aided by French tanks, launched a major offensive northwards in very difficult terrain atMeuse-Argonne. Initially enjoying numerical odds of eight to one, this offensive eventually engaged 35 or 40 of the 190 or so German divisions on the Western Front, although to put this in perspective, around half the German divisions were engaged on theBritish Expeditionary Force(BEF) sector at the time.

Pershing on the front page of the first issue ofStars and Stripes, February 8, 1918.

The offensive was, however, marked by Pershing\'s failure: his reliance on massed infantry attacks with little artillery support led to high casualty rates in the capturing of three key points. This was despite the AEF facing only second-line German troops after the decision byErich Ludendorff, theGerman Chief of Staff, to withdraw to the Hindenburg Line on October 3–and in notable contrast to the simultaneous British breakthrough of the Hindenburg Line in the north. Pershing was subsequently forced to reorganize the AEF with the creation of the Second Army, and to step down as the commander of the First Army.[53]

When he arrived in Europe, Pershing had openly scorned the slow trench warfare of the previous three years on the Western Front, believing that American soldiers\' skill with the rifle would enable them to avoid costly and senseless fighting over a small area ofno-man\'s land. This was regarded as unrealistic by British and French commanders, and (privately) by a number of Americans such asArmy Chief of StaffGeneralTasker Blissand even Liggett. Even German generals were negative, with Ludendorff dismissing Pershing\'s strategic efforts in the Meuse-Argonne offensive by recalling how \"the attacks of the youthful American troops broke down with the heaviest losses\".[54]The AEF had performed well in the relatively open warfare of the Second Battle of the Marne, but the eventual American casualties against German defensive positions in the Argonne (roughly 120,000 American casualties in six weeks, against 35 or 40 German divisions) were not noticeably better than those of the Franco-Britishoffensive on the Sommetwo years earlier (600,000 casualties in four and a half months, versus 50 or so German divisions). More ground was gained, but by this stage of the war theGerman Armywas in worse shape than in previous years.

\"Address from France\"MENU0:00A speech given from Allied Headquarters, Chaumont, France, 1918Problems playing this file? Seemedia help.

Some writers[55]have speculated that Pershing\'s frustration at the slow progress through the Argonne was the cause of two incidents which then ensued. First, he ordered the U.S. First Army to take \"the honor\" of recapturingSedan, site of theFrench defeat in 1870; the ensuing confusion (an order was issued that \"boundaries were not to be considered binding\") exposed American troops to danger not only from the French on their left, but even from one another, as the1st Divisiontacked westward by night across the path of the42nd Division(accounts differ as to whetherBrigadier GeneralDouglas MacArthur, then commanding the84th Brigadeof the 42nd Division, was really mistaken for a German officer and arrested). Liggett, who had been away from headquarters the previous day, had to sort out the mess and implement the instructions from the Allied Supreme Command, Marshal Foch, allowing the French to recapture the city; he later recorded that this was the only time during the war in which he lost his temper.

Second, Pershing sent an unsolicited letter to the AlliedSupreme War Council, demanding that the Germans not be given an armistice and that instead, the Allies should push on and obtain an unconditional surrender.[56]Although in later years, many, including PresidentFranklin D. Roosevelt, felt that Pershing had been correct, at the time, this was a breach of political authority. Pershing narrowly escaped a serious reprimand from Wilson\'s aide,ColonelEdward M. House, and later apologized.[citation needed]

General Pershing decorating soldiers in Trier, 1919.

At the time of theArmistice, another Franco-American offensive was due to start on November 14, thrusting towardsMetzand intoLorraine, to take place simultaneously with further BEF advances throughBelgium.

In his memoirs, Pershing claimed that the American breakout from the Argonne at the start of November was the decisive event leading to theGermanacceptance of an armistice, because it made untenable the Antwerp–Meuse line. This is probably an exaggeration; the outbreak of civil unrest and naval mutiny in Germany, the collapse ofBulgaria, theOttoman Empire, and inSalonika, Syria, and Italy, (as well as the collapse of the co-belligerents of theCentral Powers) and the Allied victories on the Western Front were among a series of events in the autumn of 1918 which made it clear that Allied victory was inevitable, and diplomatic inquiries about an armistice had been going on throughout October. President Wilson was keen to tie matters up before the mid-term elections,[citation needed]and as the other Allies were running low on supplies and manpower,[57]they followed Wilson\'s lead.[citation needed]

Pershing and his General Staff at Headquarters, Chaumont.

American successes were largely credited to Pershing, and he became the most celebrated American leader of the war. Critics,[who?]however, claimed that Pershing commanded from far behind the lines and was critical of commanders who personally led troops into battle.[citation needed]MacArthur saw Pershing as a desk soldier, and the relationship between the two men deteriorated by the end of the war. Similar criticism of senior commanders by the younger generation of officers (the future generals ofWorld War II) was made in the British and other armies, but in fairness to Pershing, although it was not uncommon for brigade commanders to serve near the front and even be killed, the state of communications in World War I made it more practical for senior generals to command from the rear. He controversially ordered his troops to continue fighting after the armistice was signed. This resulted in 3,500 American casualties on the last day of the war, an act which was regarded as murder by several officers under his command.[58]

The year of 1918 also saw a personal health struggle for Pershing as he was sickened during the1918 flu pandemic, but unlike many who were not so fortunate, Pershing survived.[59]He rode his horse, Kidron, in the Paris victory parade in 1919.[60]

Later careerGen. Pershing as Army Chief of Staff

In 1919, in recognition of his distinguished service during World War I, theU.S. Congressauthorized the President to promote Pershing toGeneral of the Armies of the United States, the highest rank possible for any member of the United States armed forces, which was created especially for him and one that only he held at the time.[61](In 1976 Congress authorized PresidentGerald Fordto posthumously promoteGeorge Washingtonto this rank as part of theUnited States Bicentennial; Washington previously held the rank of General of the Armies in theContinental Army; his earlier date of rank in the 1976 promotion ensured that Washington would always be considered the U.S. Army\'s highest-ranking officer.)[62][63]Pershing was authorized to create his insignia for the new rank and chose to wear four gold stars[64][65][66][67]for the rest of his career, which separated him from the four (temporary) silver stars worn by Army Chiefs of Staff of the 1910s and early 1920s.

In 1919, Pershing created theMilitary Order of the World Warsas an officer\'s fraternity for veterans of the First World War, modeled after theMilitary Order of Foreign Wars. Both organizations still exist today and welcome new officer members to their ranks. Pershing himself would join the MOFW in 1924.

There was a movement to draft Pershing as a candidate for president in 1920; he refused to campaign, but indicated that he \"wouldn\'t decline to serve\" if the people wanted him. Though Pershing was a Republican, many of his party\'s leaders considered him too closely tied to the policies of theDemocratic Party\'sPresident Wilson. Another general,Leonard Wood, was the earlyRepublican front runner, but the nomination went to SenatorWarren G. HardingofOhio, who went on to win thegeneral election.[68]

Bronze relief of Pershing, Kansas City, Missouri,Liberty Memorial

In 1921, Pershing becameChief of Staff of the United States Army, serving for three years. He created thePershing Map, a proposed national network of military and civilian highways. TheInterstate Highway Systeminstituted in 1956 bears considerable resemblance to the Pershing map. On his 64th birthday, September 13, 1924, Pershing retired from active military service. (Army regulations from the late 1860s to the early 1940s required officers to retire on their 64th birthday.)

On November 1, 1921, Pershing was inKansas Cityto take part in the groundbreaking ceremony for theLiberty Memorialthat was being constructed there. Also present that day were Lieutenant GeneralBaron Jacquesof Belgium, AdmiralDavid Beattyof Great Britain, MarshalFerdinand Fochof France, and GeneralArmando Diazof Italy. One of the main speakers was Vice PresidentCalvin Coolidge. In 1935, bas-reliefs of Pershing, Jacques, Foch and Diaz by sculptorWalker Hancockwere added to the memorial. Pershing also laid the cornerstone of theWorld War Memorialin Indianapolis on July 4, 1927.[69]

On October 2, 1922, amidst several hundred officers, many of them combat veterans of World War I, Pershing formally established theReserve Officers Association(ROA) as an organization at the Willard Hotel in Washington, D.C. ROA is a 75,000-member, professional association of officers, former officers, and spouses of all the uniformed services of the United States, primarily the Reserve and United States National Guard. It is a congressionally chartered Association that advises the Congress and the President on issues of national security on behalf of all members of the Reserve Component.

In 1924 Pershing became a member of the Pennsylvania Society of theSons of the American Revolution. He was also an honorary member of theSociety of the Cincinnatiand a Veteran Companion of theMilitary Order of Foreign Wars.

1940 newsreel

Pershing served on a committee of theSons of the American Revolutionto establish and recognizeConstitution Dayin the United States.[70]

During the 1930s, Pershing largely retreated to private life, but returned to the public eye with publication of his memoirs,My Experiences in the World War, which were awarded the 1932Pulitzer Prizefor history. He was also an activeCivitanduring this time.[71]

In 1940, before and after theFall of France, Pershing was an outspoken advocate of aid for theUnited KingdomduringWorld War II. In August 1940, he publicly supported the \"Destroyers for Bases Agreement\", whereby the United States sold fifty warships from World War I to the UK in exchange for lengthy leases of land on British possessions for the establishment for military bases.

In 1944, with Congress\' creation of the five star rank of General of the Army, Pershing was still considered to be the highest-ranking officer of the United States military as his rank was General of the Armies. \"In [1799] Congress created forGeorge Washingtonthe rank of General of the Armies ... General[Ulysses S.] Grantreceived the title of General of the Army in 1866 .... Carefully Congress wrote a bill (HR 7594) to revive the rank of General of the Armies for General Pershing alone to hold during his lifetime. The rank would cease to exist upon Pershing\'s death.\" Later, when asked if this made Pershing a five-star general,Secretary of WarHenry L. Stimsoncommented that it did not, since Pershing never wore more than four stars, but that Pershing was still to be considered senior to the present five-star generals of World War II.[72]

In July 1944, Pershing was visited byFree Frenchleader GeneralCharles de Gaulle. When Pershing asked after the health of his old friend, MarshalPhilippe Pétain– who was heading the pro-GermanVichyregime – de Gaulle replied tactfully that, when he last saw him, the Marshal was well.[73]

DeathPershing\'s tombstone atArlington National Cemetery

On July 15, 1948, Pershing died ofcoronary artery diseaseandcongestive heart failureatWalter Reed General Hospitalin Washington, D.C., which was his home after 1944. Following astate funeral, he was buried inArlington National Cemetery,[74]near the grave sites of the soldiers he commanded in Europe.

Family

It was during his initial assignment in the American West that Pershing\'s mother died.[75]On March 16, 1906, his father died.[75]

Colonel Francis Warren Pershing (1909–1980), John J. Pershing\'s son, served in theSecond World Waras an advisor to the Army Chief of Staff, GeneralGeorge C. Marshall. After the war he continued with his financial career and founded a stock brokerage firm,Pershing & Company. He was father to two sons, Richard W. Pershing (1942–1968) and John Warren Pershing III (1941–1999). Richard Pershing served as a second lieutenant in the502nd Infantryand was killed in action on February 17, 1968, inVietnam.[76]John Pershing III served as a special assistant to former Army Chief of Staff GeneralGordon R. Sullivan, also attaining the rank ofcolonel. He helped shape army and theROTCprograms nationwide. Colonel Pershing died of cardiovascular disease in 1999.[77]

Summary of serviceDates of rankInsigniaRankComponentDateNo InsigniaCadetUnited States Military AcademyJuly 1, 1882No Insignia in 1886Second Lieutenant6th Cavalry,Regular ArmyJuly 1, 1886First Lieutenant10th Cavalry, Regular ArmyOctober 20, 1892MajorChief Ordnance Officer,VolunteersAugust 18, 1898MajorAssistant Adjutant General,VolunteersJune 6, 1899
(Reverted to permanent Regular Army rank of captain on July 1, 1901.)CaptainCavalry, Regular ArmyFebruary 2, 1901Brigadier GeneralRegular ArmySeptember 20, 1906Major GeneralRegular ArmySeptember 25, 1916GeneralEmergencyOctober 6, 1917General of the ArmiesRegular ArmySeptember 3, 1919[78][79]General of the ArmiesRetired ListSeptember 13, 1924[80]Highest World War II rank proposedGeneral of the Armies, Regular Army, Retired. Proposed six-star rank from December 14, 1944. General of the Army was created as five-star rank by an Act of Congress on a temporary basis with the enactment of Public Law 78-482. The law creating the five-star rank stipulated that Pershing was still to be considered senior to the five-star generals of World War II. This could be understood to mean that he was a \"six-star general\". However Pershing died in 1948, so Congress never officially adopted the proposed six-star insignia for the General of the Armies rank.[81][82]

1920\'s vintage AUTOGRAPH PHOTO GENERAL JOHN J PERSHING U.S. ARMY SIGNED :
$98.00

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