Antique Vintage Sterling Silver Photo Locket Pendant Necklace 925 JAM hallmark

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Antique Vintage Sterling Silver Photo Locket Pendant Necklace 925 JAM hallmark:
$35.00

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Hi there, I am selling this Amazing Antique solid sterling silver photo locket pendant and sterling silver necklace!
It is either Victorian or Edwardian and it is stamped \"STERLING SILVER\" and \"JAM\" Which I have read is a Hallmark on the locket and \"925\" on the chain. I am fairly certian that this is from the 20\'s from the estate I purchased it from .
The locket came with 2 photos, one of a boy and another of a photo of a girl with brown hair, I thought these were lovers, but now I think they were children.
I am almost certain that this was a memorial or mourning locket which used to be really popular in the Edwardian times.
The necklace weighs26.80 carats, which is 5.35 grams and the locket itself measures 24 mm by 22 mm by 5 mm.
It is really gorgeous, and it looks really amazing for its age and it is in great condition! If you have any questions, do not hesitate to ask me.
Have fun offerding, and know that I will ship this out the same day as the payment clears. Thanks so much for visiting my sale and have a great day:>)

The following is information about this from wikipedia:
Mourning From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Not to be confused with Morning.For the American basketball player, see Alonzo Mourning.Girl in mourning dress holding framed photograph of her father, who presumably died during the American Civil War.Egyptian women in a sorrowful gesture of mourning.

Mourning is, in the simplest sense, synonymous with grief over the death of someone. The word is also used to describe a cultural complex of behaviours in which the bereaved participate or are expected to participate. Customs vary between different cultures and evolve over time, though many core behaviors remain constant.

Wearing black clothes is one practice followed in many countries, though other forms of dress are also seen. Those most affected by the loss of a loved one often observe a period of grieving, marked by withdrawal from social events and quiet, respectful behavior. People may also follow certain religious traditions for such occasions.

Mourning may also apply to the death of, or anniversary of the death of, an important individual like a local leader, monarch, religious figure, etc. State mourning may occur on such an occasion. In recent years some traditions have given way to less strict practices, though many customs and traditions continue to be followed.

Contents

• 1 Social customs and dress
  • 1.1 Africa
    • 1.1.1 Ethiopia
  • 1.2 Asia
    • 1.2.1 Japan
    • 1.2.2 Thailand
    • 1.2.3 Philippines
  • 1.3 Europe
    • 1.3.1 Continental Europe
    • 1.3.2 White mourning
    • 1.3.3 United Kingdom
      • 1.3.3.1 Georgian and Victorian Eras
  • 1.4 North America
    • 1.4.1 United States
  • 1.5 The Pacific
    • 1.5.1 Tonga
• 2 State and official mourning
• 3 Religions and customs
  • 3.1 Confucianism
  • 3.2 Buddhism
  • 3.3 Christianity
    • 3.3.1 Eastern Christianity
    • 3.3.2 Western Christianity
  • 3.4 Hinduism
  • 3.5 Islam
    • 3.5.1 Directives for widows
  • 3.6 Judaism
• 4 See also
• 5 References
• 6 External links

Social customs and dressAfricaEthiopia

In Ethiopia, an Edir (var. eddir) is a traditional community organization whose members assist each other during the mourning process.[1] Members make monthly financial contributions forming the Edir\'s fund. They are entitled to receive a certain sum of money from this fund, whose rate varies based on how close the deceased is to the Edir member. The purpose for such payment is to help cover funeral and other expenses associated with deaths. Additionally, Edir members comfort the mourners: female members take turns doing housework, such as preparing food for the mourning family, while male members usually take the responsibility to arrange the funeral and erect a temporary tent to shelter guests who come to visit the mourning family. Edir members are required to stay with the mourning family and comfort them for three full days.[citation needed]

Asia

In Asia many people dress in different colors such as indigo, ruby-red and many more. In India the members of the mourning family and the people who come to participate in mourning all wear white clothes.

JapanJapanese funeral arrangement.

The Japanese term for mourning dress is mofuku (喪服). The term refers to either primarily black Western-style formal wear or to black traditional Japanese clothing worn at funerals and Buddhist memorial services. Other colors, particularly reds and bright shades, are considered inappropriate for mourning dress. If wearing Western clothes, women may wear a single strand of white pearls.

Japanese-style mourning dress for women consists of a five-crested plain black silk kimono, black obi and black accessories worn over white undergarments, black zori sandals and white tabi split-toe socks. Women\'s mourning kimono and accessories are worn only for mourning. Men\'s mourning dress consists of clothing worn on extremely formal occasions: a plain black silk five-crested kimono and black and white or gray and white striped hakama trousers over white undergarments, black crested haori jacket with a white closure, white or black zori and white　tabi.

It is customary for Japanese-style mourning dress to be worn only by the immediate family and very close friends of the deceased; other attendees wear Western-style mourning dress or subdued Western or Japanese formal clothes.

Thailand

In Thailand people will wear black when attending a funeral. Black is considered the mourning color.

Philippines

The Filipino practices for mourning have influences from Chinese, Japanese and folk Catholic beliefs. People may wear white or black. The color red is frowned upon in the time of mourning, it is believed that those who wear red within 9-40 days will die or suffer illness. The consumption of chicken during the wake and funeral is also believed to bring death among the relatives. There is an initial 9-day mourning practice called Pasiyam, a novena is to be prayed by those who are mourning. During those 9 days the spirit of the deceased is believed to be roaming. 40 Days, similar to the Buddhist practice of 49 days, is a folk Filipino Catholic practice of commemorating the dead after 40 days from their death date. A Mass and a small feast are held to commemorate the dead during the 40-day period, the 40th day as their judgment day. The immediate family wear black and when the one-year period is over, the first death anniversary will signal the end of mourning - celebrated by a feast.

EuropeContinental Europe\"Mourning dress\" redirects here. For the daytime form of men\'s formal dress, see morning dress.Catherine de\' Medici as widow, c. 1560sMourning jewelry

The custom of wearing unadorned black clothing for mourning dates back at least to the Roman Empire, when the toga pulla, made of dark-colored wool, was worn during periods of mourning.

Through the Middle Ages and Renaissance, distinctive mourning was worn for general as well as personal loss; after the St. Bartholomew\'s Day Massacre of Huguenots in France, Elizabeth I of England and her court are said to have dressed in full mourning to receive the French Ambassador.

Women in mourning and widows wore distinctive black caps and veils, generally in a conservative version of the current fashion.

In areas of Russia, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Italy, Mexico, Portugal, and Spain, widows will wear black for the rest of their lives. The immediate family members of the deceased will wear black for an extended period of time. Since the 1870s, mourning practices for some cultures, even those who have emigrated to the United States, are to wear black for a period of at least two years, though lifelong black for widows remains in Europe.

White mourningMary, Queen of Scots, in deuil blanc c. 1559 following the deaths of her father-in-law, mother, and first husband Francis II of France.Advertisement for Victorian mourning garb

The color of deepest mourning among medieval European queens was white. In 1393, Parisians were treated to the unusual spectacle of a royal funeral carried out in white, for Leo V, King of Armenia, who died in exile.[2] This royal tradition survived in Spain until the end of the fifteenth century. In 1993, it was revived by the Spanish-born Queen Fabiola for the funeral of her husband, King Baudouin I of Belgium. Additionally, in 2004, the four daughters of Queen Juliana of the Netherlands all wore white to their mother\'s funeral. The custom for the Queens of France to wear deuil blanc [white mourning] was the origin of the White Wardrobe created in 1938 by Norman Hartnell for Queen Elizabeth (later called Queen Mother). She was required to make a State visit to France while in mourning for her mother.

United Kingdom

Today, no special dress or behaviour is obligatory for those in mourning in the general population, although various ethnic and religious faiths have specific rituals. Traditionally, however, there were strict social rules to be observed.

Georgian and Victorian ErasPoor orphans depicted wearing a makeshift black armband to mourn for their mother (Work by F.M. Brown), 1865

By the 19th century, mourning behaviour in England had developed into a complex set of rules, particularly among the upper classes. For women, the customs involved wearing heavy, concealing, black clothing, and the use of heavy veils of black crêpe. The entire ensemble was colloquially known as \"widow\'s weeds\" (from the Old English waed, meaning \"garment\").

Special caps and bonnets, usually in black or other dark colours, went with these ensembles. There was special mourning jewelry, often made of jet. Jewelry was also occasionally made from the hair of the deceased. The wealthy would wear cameos or lockets designed to hold a lock of the deceased\'s hair or some similar relic.

Widows were expected to wear special clothes to indicate that they were in mourning for up to four years after the death, although a widow could choose to wear such attire for the rest of her life. To change the costume earlier was considered disrespectful to the decedent and, if the widow was still young and attractive, suggestive of potential sexual promiscuity. Those subject to the rules were slowly allowed to re-introduce conventional clothing at specific time periods; such stages were known by such terms as \"full mourning\", \"half mourning\", and similar descriptions. At half mourning, dark, muted colours like grey and lavender could be introduced.

The five daughters of Prince Albert wore black dresses and posed for a portrait with his statue following his death in 1861.

Friends, acquaintances, and employees wore mourning to a greater or lesser degree depending on their relationship to the deceased. Mourning was worn for six months for a sibling. Parents would wear mourning for a child for \"as long as they feel so disposed\". A widow was supposed to wear mourning for two years and was not supposed to enter society for twelve months. No lady or gentleman in mourning was supposed to attend social events while in deep mourning. In general, servants wore black armbands when there had been a death in the household. However, amongst polite company the wearing of a simple a black arm band was seen as appropriate only for military men, or others compelled to wear uniform in the course of their duties - a black arm band instead of proper mourning clothes was seen as a degradation of proper etiquette and to be avoided.[3] In general, men were expected to wear mourning suits (not to be confused with morning suits) of black frock coats with matching trousers and waistcoats. In the later interbellum period between World War I and World War II, as the frock coat became increasingly rare, the mourning suit consisted of a black morning coat with black trousers and waistcoat, essentially a black version of the morning suit worn to weddings and other occasions, which would normally include colored waistcoats and striped or checked trousers.

Formal mourning culminated during the reign of Queen Victoria, whose long and conspicuous grief over the death of her husband, Prince Albert, may have had much to do with it. Although fashions began to be more functional and less restrictive for the succeeding Edwardians, appropriate dress for men and women—including that for the period of mourning—was still strictly prescribed and rigidly adhered to.

Queen Victoria with the five surviving children of her daughter, Princess Alice, dressed in mourning clothing for their mother and their sister Princess Marie in early 1879.

The rules were gradually relaxed, and it became acceptable practise for both sexes to dress in dark colours for up to a year after a death in the family. By the late 20th century, this no longer applied, and black had been widely adopted by women in cities as a fashionable colour.

North AmericaUnited StatesMourning dress, circa 1867
Museum of Funeral Customs

Mourning generally followed English forms into the 20th century. Black dress is still considered proper etiquette for attendance at funerals, but extended periods of wearing black dress is no longer expected. However, attendance at social functions such as weddings when a family is in deep mourning is frowned upon. Men who share their father\'s given name and hence use a suffix such as \"Junior\" retain the suffix at least until the father\'s funeral is complete.

In the antebellum South, with social mores that imitated those of England, mourning was just as strictly observed by the upper classes.

In the 19th century, mourning could be quite expensive, as it required a whole new set of clothes and accessories or, at the very least, overdying existing garments and taking them out of daily use. For a poorer family, this was a strain on the resources.[4]

At the end of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, Dorothy explains to Glinda that she must return home because her aunt and uncle cannot afford to go into mourning for her because it was too expensive.[5]

The PacificTongaMain article: Tongan funerals

In Tonga, family members of deceased persons wear black for an extended period of time, with large plain Ta\'ovala. Often, black bunting is hung from homes and buildings; and, in the case of the death of royalty, the entire country adopts mourning dress and black and purple bunting is displayed from most buildings.

State and official mourningMain article: National day of mourningQueen Paola of Belgium in \"grand deuil\"

State mourning or, in the case of a monarchy, court mourning refers to displays of mourning behavior on the death of a public figure or member of a royal family.

The degree and duration of public mourning is generally decreed by a protocol officer. It was not unusual for the British court to declare that all citizens should wear full mourning for a specified period after the death of the monarch, or that the members of the court should wear full- or half-mourning for an extended period. On the death of Queen Victoria (January 22, 1901), the Canada Gazette published an \"extra\" edition announcing that court mourning would continue until January 24, 1902. It directed the public to wear deep mourning until March 6, 1901, and half-mourning until April 17, 1901.

The black-and-white costumes designed by Cecil Beaton for the Royal Ascot sequence in My Fair Lady were inspired by the \"Black Ascot\" of 1910, when the court was in mourning for Victoria\'s son, Edward VII.

All over the world, States usually declare a period of official mourning after the death of a Head of State. The signs may vary but usually include the lowering or posting half-mast of Flags on public buildings. (In contrast, the Royal Standard of the United Kingdom is not flown at half-mast, because there is always a monarch on the throne.)

In January 2006, on the death of Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, the Emir of Kuwait, a mourning period of 40 days was declared. In Tonga, the official mourning lasts for a year; only afterwards is the royal heir crowned the new king.

On the other hand, the principle of continuity of the State must be respected. The principle is reflected in the French saying \"Le Roi est mort, vive le Roi!\" [The king is dead, long live the king!]. Regardless of the formalities of mourning, power must be handed on; if the succession is uncontested, that is best done immediately. Yet, a short interruption of work in the civil service may result from one or more days of closing the offices, especially on the day of the State funeral.

Religions and customsMaria Luisa, Queen of Spain lying in state, by Sebastián Muñoz, 1689, displays the full panoply of lying in stateConfucianism

There are five grades of mourning obligations in the Confucian Code. A man is expected to honor most of those descended from his great-great-grandfather, and most of their wives. One\'s father (and mother) would merit 27 months. One\'s grandfather on the male side, as well as one\'s wife, would be grade two, or twelve months of austerities. A paternal uncle is grade three at nine months. Grade four is reserved for one\'s father\'s first cousin, maternal grandparents, siblings and sister\'s children (five months). First cousins once removed, second cousins and a man\'s wife\'s parents were to get grade five (three months).[6]

BuddhismMain article: Funeral (Buddhism)ChristianityEastern ChristianityA mourning ritual of the Mingrelians in Georgia, c. 1884.

Orthodox Christians usually hold the funeral either the day after death or on the third day, and always during the daytime. In traditional Orthodox communities the body of the departed would be washed and prepared for burial by family or friends, and then placed in the coffin in the home. A house in mourning would be recognizable by the lid of the coffin, with a cross on it, and often adorned with flowers, set on the porch by the front door.

Special prayers are held on the third, seventh or ninth (number varies in different national churches), and 40th days after death; the third, sixth and ninth or twelfth month;[7] and annually thereafter in a memorial service,[8] for up to three generations. Kolyva is ceremoniously used to honor the dead.

Sometimes men in mourning will not shave for the 40 days.[9] Forty seems to have recurring pre-Judaic origins e.g. in the Rites of Persephone.[10] In Greece and other Orthodox countries, it is not uncommon for widows to remain in mourning dress for the rest of their lives.

When an Orthodox bishop dies, a successor is not elected until after the 40 days of mourning are completed, during which period his diocese is said to be \"widowed\".

The 40th day has great significance in Orthodox religion. That is the period during which soul of deceased wanders on earth. On 40th day ascension of his soul occurs. Therefore, it\'s The most important day in mourning period, on which special prayers should be held on grave site of deceased. This custom originates from old Slavic pagan religion and it was incorporated into Orthodox religion, during the Christianization of old Slavic nations[citation needed].

As in the Roman Catholic rites, there can be symbolic mourning. During Holy Week, some temples in the Church of Cyprus draw black curtains across the icons.[11] The services of Good Friday and Holy Saturday morning are patterned in part on the Orthodox Christian burial service, and funeral lamentations.

Western Christianity

The European social forms are, in general, forms of Christian religious expression transferred to the greater community.

In the Roman Catholic Church, the Mass of Paul VI, adopted in 1969, allows several options for the liturgical color used in Masses for the Dead. Prior to the liturgical reform, black was the ordinary color for funeral Masses; in the revised use, several options are available. According to the General Instruction of the Roman Missal (§346d-e), violet, white, or black vestments may be worn at Offices and Masses for the dead.

Christian Churches often go into mourning symbolically during the period of Lent to commemorate the sacrifice and death of Jesus. Customs vary among the denominations and include the covering or removal of statuary, icons and paintings, and use of special liturgical colors, such as violet/purple, during Lent and Holy Week.

In more formal congregations, parishioners also dress according to specific forms during Holy Week, particularly on Maundy Thursday and Good Friday, when it is still common to wear black or sombre dress or, as mentioned, the liturgical color purple.

Hinduism

Death is not seen as the final \"end\", but is seen as a turning point in the seemingly endless journey of the indestructible \"atman\" or soul through innumerable bodies of animals and people. Hence, Hinduism prohibits excessive mourning or lamentation upon death, as this can hinder the passage of the departed soul towards its journey ahead: \"As mourners will not help the dead in this world, therefore (the relatives) should not weep, but perform the obsequies to the best of their power.\"[12]

Hindu mourning is described in dharma shastras.[13][14] It begins immediately after the cremation of the body and ends on the morning of the thirteenth day. Traditionally the body is cremated within 24 hours after death; however, cremations are not held after sunset or before sunrise. Immediately after the death, an oil lamp is lit near the deceased, and this lamp is kept burning for three days. Hinduism associates death with ritual impurity for the immediate blood family of the deceased, hence during these mourning days, the immediate blood family must not perform any religious ceremonies (except funerals), must not visit temples or other sacred places, must not serve the sages (holy men), must not give alms, must not read or recite from the sacred scriptures, nor can they attend social functions such as marriages, parties, etc. The family of the deceased is not expected to serve any visiting guests food or drink. It is customary that the visiting guests do not eat or drink in the house where the death has occurred. The family in mourning are required to bathe twice a day, eat a single simple vegetarian meal, and try to cope with their loss.

On the day on which the death has occurred, the family do not cook; hence usually close family and friends will provide food for the mourning family. White clothing (the color of purity) is the color of mourning, and many will wear white during the mourning period.

The male members of the family do not cut their hair or shave, and the female members of the family do not wash their hair until the 10th day after the death. On the morning of the 10th day, all male members of the family shave and cut their hair, and female members wash their hair. This day is called Dasai or Daswan. After \"Daswan\", some vedic rituals are started. If the deceased was young and unmarried, the \"Narayan Bali\" is performed by the Pandits. The Mantras of \"Bhairon Paath\" are recited. This ritual is performed through the person who has given the Mukhagni (Ritual of giving fire to the dead body).

On the morning of the thirteenth day, a Śrāddha ceremony is performed. The main ceremony involves a fire sacrifice, in which offerings are given to the ancestors and to gods, to ensure the deceased has a peaceful afterlife. Pind Sammelan is performed to ensure the involvement of the departed soul with that of God. Typically after the ceremony, the family cleans and washes all the idols in the family shrine; and flowers, fruits, water and purified food are offered to the gods. Then, the family is ready to break the period of mourning and return to daily life.

IslamMain article: Islamic funeral § MourningWomen mourners at the reburial of newly identified victims of the Srebrenica massacre in Bosnia.

Mourning is observed in Islam by increased devotion, receiving visitors and condolences, and avoiding decorative clothing and jewelry.

Loved ones and relatives are to observe a three-day mourning period.[15] Widows observe an extended mourning period (Iddah), four months and ten days[16] long, in accordance with the Qur\'an 2:234. During this time, she is not to remarry, move from her home, or wear decorative clothing or jewelry.

Grief at the death of a beloved person is normal, and weeping for the dead is allowed in Islam.[17] What is prohibited is to express grief by wailing (\"bewailing\" refers to mourning in a loud voice), shrieking, tearing hair or clothes, breaking things, scratching faces, or uttering phrases that make a Muslim lose faith.[18]

Directives for widows

Qur\'an prohibits widows from engaging themselves for four lunar months and ten days after the death of their husbands. According to Qur\'an:

“And those of you who die and leave widows behind, they should keep themselves in waiting for four months and ten days. Then when they have fulfilled their term, there is no blame on you about what they do with themselves in accordance with the norms [of society]. And Allah is well acquainted with what you do. And there is also no blame on you if you tacitly send a marriage proposal to these women or hold it in your hearts. Allah knows that you would definitely talk to them. [Do so] but do not make a secret contract. Of course you can say something in accordance with the norms [of the society]. And do not decide to marry until the law reaches its term. And know that Allah has knowledge of what is in your hearts; so be fearful of Him and know that Allah is Most forgiving and Most Forbearing.”

JudaismMain article: Bereavement in JudaismA woman mourning the death of her husband, Prague, 1772

Judaism looks upon mourning as a process by which the stricken can re-enter into society, and so provides a series of customs that make this process gradual. The first stage is the Shiva (literally meaning seven), which consists of the first seven days after the funeral. The second stage is the Shloshim (thirty), referring to the thirty days following the death. In some special cases there are more extended periods of mourning which can last three months and even one year. Each stage places lighter demands and restrictions than the previous one in order to reintegrate the bereaved into normal life.

The most known and central stage is Shiva, which is a Jewish mourning practice in which people adjust their behaviour as an expression of their bereavement for the week immediately after the burial. In the West, typically, mirrors are covered and a small tear is made in an item of clothing to indicate a lack of interest in personal vanity. The bereaved dress simply and sit on the floor, short stools or boxes rather than chairs when receiving the condolences of visitors. In some cases relatives or friends take care or the bereaved\'s house chores, as cooking and cleaning. English speakers use the expression \"to sit shiva\".

During the Shloshim the mourners are no longer expected to sit on the floor or be taken care of (cooking/cleaning). However some customs still apply. There is a prohibition on getting married or attending any sort of celebrations and men refrain from shaving or cutting their hair.

Lock of hair From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For other uses, see Lock (disambiguation).A hair wreath from the 19th-century with a lock of hair in the center, in the collection of The Children\'s Museum of Indianapolis

A lock of hair is a piece or pieces of hair that has been cut from, or remains singly on, a human head, most commonly bunched or tied together in some way. A standard dictionary definition defines a lock as a tress, curl, or ringlet of hair (dictionary.com).

Contents

• 1 Symbolic value
• 2 Sources
• 3 See also
• 4 Notes

Locket From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For the cough drops, see Lockets.Locket, 1650-1700 V&A Museum no. 827-1864

A locket is a pendant that opens to reveal a space used for storing a photograph or other small item such as a curl of hair. Lockets are usually given to loved ones on holidays such as Valentine\'s Day and occasions such as Christenings, weddings and, most noticeably during the Victorian Age, funerals.

Lockets are generally worn on chains around the neck and often hold a photo of the person who gave the locket, or they could form part of a charm bracelet. They come in many shapes such as ovals, hearts and circles and are usually made of precious metals such as gold and silver befitting their status as decorative jewellery.

Lockets usually hold only one or two photographs, but some specially made lockets can hold up to eight. Some lockets have been fashioned as \'spinner\' lockets, where the bail that attaches to the necklace chain is attached but not fixed to the locket itself which is free to spin. This was a common style in the Victorian Age.

Keepsake lockets can also be made with a glass pane at the front so that what is inside can be seen without opening the locket. Such lockets are generally used for items like locks of hair which could fall out and become lost if the locket were repeatedly opened, whereas photograph lockets are generally enclosed on all sides and the photographs are secured by pieces of clear plastic.

Another kind of locket is/was made in a filigree style with a small cushion in the centre to which a few drops of perfume should be added. Perfume lockets were popular in eras when personal hygiene was restricted and sweet smelling perfume was used to mask the odour of a person or their companions.

Very rare World War I- and World War II-era British and American military uniform locket buttons exist, containing miniature working compasses.[1]

The Locket also refers to a book by Richard Paul Evans and the Season 2 Farscape episode.

Sterling silverFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, search This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (June 2009) Tiffany & Co. pitcher. c. 1871. Pitcher has paneled sides, and repousse design with shells, scrolls and flowers. Top edge is repousse arrowhead leaf design.

Sterling silver is an alloy of silver containing 92.5% by mass of silver and 7.5% by mass of other metals, usually copper. The sterling silver standard has a minimum millesimal fineness of 925.

Fine silver is 99.9% pure and is generally too soft for producing functional objects; therefore, the silver is usually alloyed with copper to give it strength while preserving the ductility and beauty of the precious metal. Other metals can replace the copper, usually with the intent to improve various properties of the basic sterling alloy such as reducing casting porosity, eliminating firescale, and increasing resistance to tarnish. These replacement metals include germanium, zinc and platinum, as well as a variety of other additives, including silicon and boron. A number of alloys, such as Argentium sterling silver, have appeared in recent years, formulated to lessen firescale or to inhibit tarnish, and this has sparked heavy competition among the various manufacturers, who are rushing to make claims of having the best formulation. However, no one alloy has emerged to replace copper as the industry standard, and alloy development is a very active area.

Contents

• 1 Etymology
• 2 History
• 3 Hallmarks
• 4 Uses
• 5 Tarnish and corrosion
• 6 References
• 7 External links

Etymology Norman silver pennies changed designs every three years. This two-star design (possible origin of the word \"sterling\"), issued by William the Conqueror, is from 1077-1080.

One of the earliest attestations of the term is in Old French form esterlin, in a charter of the abbey of Les Préaux, dating to either 1085 or 1104. The English chronicler Orderic Vitalis (1075 – c. 1142) uses the Latin forms libræ sterilensium and libræ sterilensis monetæ. The word in origin refers to the newly introduced Norman silver penny.

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the most plausible etymology is derivation from a late Old English steorling (with (or like) a \"little star\"), as some early Norman pennies were imprinted with a small star. There are a number of obsolete hypotheses. One suggests a connection with starling, because four birds (in fact martlets) were depicted on a penny of Edward I, and another a supposed connection with Easterling, a term for natives of the Baltic or the Hanse towns of Eastern Germany. This etymology is itself medieval, suggested by Walter de Pinchebek (ca. 1300) with the explanation that the coin was originally made by moneyers from that region.[1]

On the other hand, Philip Grierson, in his essay on Sterling, points out that the stars appeared on Norman pennies only for a single 3-year issue from 1077-80 (the Normans changed coin designs every 3 years), and that the star-theory thus fails on linguistic grounds: extensive research has been done on how coins acquire names, including nicknames. Grierson\'s proposed alternative involves an analogy with the Byzantine solidus, originally known the solidus aureaus meaning \"solid gold\" or \"reliable gold\". Even though English silver pennies had become famous for their consistent weight and purity in the days of Offa, King of Mercia, by the time of the Conquest English coinage had seriously degenerated. One of the first acts of the Normans was to restore the coinage to what it had been in the days of Offa and to maintain it consistently. Grierson thus proposes that \"sterling\" derives from \"ster\"[2] meaning \"strong\" or \"stout\".[3]

History Pair of sterling silver forks

The sterling alloy originated in continental Europe[citation needed] and was being used for commerce as early as the 12th century in the area that is now northern Germany.

In England the composition of sterling silver was subject to official assay at some date before 1158, during the reign of Henry II, but its purity was probably regulated from centuries earlier, in Saxon times. A piece of sterling silver dating from Henry II\'s reign was used as a standard in the Trial of the Pyx until it was deposited at the Royal Mint in 1843. It bears the royal stamp ENRI. REX(\"King Henry\") but this was added later, in the reign of Henry III. The first legal definition of sterling silver appeared in 1275, when a statute of Edward I specified that 12ounces of silver for coinage should contain 11ounces 2¼pennyweights of silver and 17¾pennyweights of alloy.[4]

From about 1840 to somewhere around 1940 in the United States and Europe, sterling silver cutlery [US flatware] became de rigueur when setting a proper table. In fact, there was a marked increase in the number of silver companies that emerged during that period.

The height of the silver craze was during the 50-year period from 1870 to 1920. Flatware lines during this period sometimes included up to 100 different types of pieces. In conjunction with this, the dinner went from three courses to sometimes ten or more. There was a soup course, a salad course, a fruit course, a cheese course, an antipasto course, a fish course, the main course and a pastry or dessert course.

Individual eating implements often included forks (dinner fork, place fork, salad fork, pastry fork, shrimp or cocktail fork), spoons (teaspoon, coffee spoon, demitasse spoon, bouillon spoon, gumbo soup spoon, iced tea spoon) and knives (dinner knife, place knife, butter spreader, fruit knife, cheese knife). This was especially true during the Victorian period, when etiquette dictated nothing should be touched with one\'s fingers.

Serving pieces were often elaborately decorated and pierced and embellished with ivory, and could include any or all of the following: carving knife and fork, salad knife and fork, cold meat fork, punch ladle, soup ladle, gravy ladle, casserole serving spoon, berry spoon, lasagna server, macaroni server, asparagus server, cucumber server, tomato server, olive spoon, cheese scoop, fish knife and fork, pastry server, petit four server, cake knife, bon bon spoon, tiny salt spoon, sugar sifter or caster and crumb remover with brush.

Cutlery sets were often accompanied by tea sets, hot water pots, chocolate pots, trays and salvers, goblets, demitasse cups and saucers, liqueur cups, bouillon cups, egg cups, sterling plates, napkin rings, water and wine pitchers and coasters, candelabra and even elaborate centerpieces.

In fact, the craze with sterling even extended to business (sterling paper clips, mechanical pencils, letter openers, calling card boxes, cigarette cases), to the boudoir (sterling dresser trays, mirrors, hair and suit brushes, pill bottles, manicure sets, shoehorns, perfume bottles, powder bottles, hair clips) and even to children (cups, cutlery, rattles, christening sets).

A number of factors converged to make sterling fall out of favor around the time of World War II. The cost of labor rose (sterling pieces were all still mostly hand made, with only the basics being done by machine). Only the wealthy could afford the large number of servants required for fancy dining with ten courses. And changes in aesthetics resulted in people desiring simpler dinnerware that was easier to clean.

Hallmarks

Over the years, some countries developed systems of hallmarking silver. The purpose of hallmark application is many fold:

• To indicate the purity of the silver alloy used in the manufacture or hand-crafting of the piece.
• To identify the silversmith or company that made the piece.
• To note the date and/or location of the manufacture or tradesman.

Uses

In addition to the uses of sterling silver mentioned above, there are some little known uses of sterling:

• Evidence of silver and/or silver-alloy surgical and medical instruments has been found in civilizations as early as Ur, Hellenistic-era Egypt and Rome, and their use continued until largely replaced in Western countries in the mid to late 20th century by cheaper, disposable plastic items. Its natural malleability is an obvious physical advantage, but it also exhibits medically-specific utility, including the fact that it is naturally aseptic, and, in respect of modern medical practices, it is resistant to antiseptics, heat sterilisation and body fluids.
• Due to sterling silver having a special sound character, some brasswind instrument manufacturers use 92.5% sterling silver as the material for making their instruments, including the flute and saxophone. For example, some leading saxophone manufacturers such as Selmer and Yanagisawa have crafted some of their saxophones from sterling silver, which they believe will make the instruments more resonant and colorful in timbre.

Tarnish and corrosionThis section needs additional citations for verification. (February 2011)

Chemically, silver is not very reactive—it does not react with oxygen or water at ordinary temperatures, so does not easily form a silver oxide. However, it is attacked by common components of atmospheric pollution: silver sulfide slowly appears as a black tarnish during exposure to airborne compounds of sulfur (byproducts of the burning of fossil fuels and some industrial processes), and low level ozone reacts to form silver oxide.[5] As the purity of the silver decreases, the problem of corrosion or tarnishing increases because other metals in the alloy, usually copper, may react with oxygen in the air.

The black silver sulfide (Ag2S) is among the most insoluble salts in aqueous solution, a property that is exploited for separating silver ions from other positive ions.

Sodium chloride (NaCl) or common table salt is known to corrode silver-copper alloy, typically seen in silver salt shakers where corrosion appears around the holes in the top.

Several products have been developed for the purpose of polishing silver that serve to remove sulfur from the metal without damaging or warping it. Because harsh polishing and buffing can permanently damage and devalue a piece of antique silver, valuable items are typically hand-polished to preserve the unique patinas of older pieces. Techniques such as wheel polishing, which are typically performed by professional jewelers or silver repair companies, are reserved for extreme tarnish or corrosion.

References

1. ^ \"sterling, n.1 and adj.\". OED Online. December 2011. Oxford University Press. Entry 189985 (accessed February 28, 2012).
2. ^ Fr. the anciant greek στερεός [stereos] = \'solid\'.
3. ^ Grierson, Philip. Anglo saxon Coins Historical Studies Presented to sir Frank Stenton on the occasion of his 80th birthday edited by R.H.M. Dolley. Taylor & Francis. pp.266–283. GGKEY:1JURCGTRPJ8. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
4. ^ Accounts and Papers of the House of Commons: 1866. Second. House of Commons. 23 March 1866. pp.14–15. OCLC11900114.
5. ^ Watt, Susan (2003). \"How silver reacts\". Silver. The elements. Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish. p.13. ISBN0-7614-1464-9.

• All About Antique Silver with International Hallmarks, 2nd printing (2007), by Diana Sanders Cinamon, AAA Publishing, San Bernardino, CA.
• Origins: A Short Etymological Dictionary of Modern English, by lexicographer Eric Partridge.
• Silver in America, 1840–1940: A Century of Splendor, third edition (1997), by Charles L. Venable; Harry N. Abrams, Inc., New York, NY.
• Tiffany Silver Flatware, 1845–1905: When Dining Was an Art, by William P. Hood, Jr.; 1999; published by the Antique Collectors Club Ltd., Suffolk, England.
• The Encyclopedia of American Silver Manufacturers, revised fourth edition (1998), by Dorothy T. Rainwater and Judy Redfield; Schiffer Publishing Ltd., Atglen, PA.
• The Book of Old Silver, English – American – Foreign, With All Available Hallmarks Including Sheffield Plate Marks, by Seymour B. Wyler; 1937; Crown Publishers, Inc., New York, NY.
• International Hallmarks on Silver Collected by Tardy, 5th English Language reprint (2000); original publication date unknown, date of first softcover publication 1985; author unknown; publisher unknown.

External linksThe Wikibook Do-It-Yourself has a page on the topic of: Polishing silver

• Online Encyclopedia of Silver Marks, Hallmarks & Maker\'s Marks

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