Russian Original Autographs Signature Zar Alexander II Romanow 1858 / 1859

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Russian Original Autographs Signature Zar Alexander II Romanow 1858 / 1859:
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Emperor Alexander II. Of Russia
. Alexander II Nikolaevich (Russian: Александр II Николаевич; * 17.jul / April 29 1818greg in Moscow.... † 1.jul / 13 March 1881greg in Saint Petersburg) was Emperor from 1855 to 1881 [1] from Russia the House of Romanov-Holstein-Gottorp. Alexander II. Among the already used contemporary nickname \"Czar Liberator\" (Russian Osvoboditel) in history. [2] fall In his reign the so-called. \"Great reforms\". [3] Life Childhood and Education Alexander II was born in 1818 as son of Emperor Nicholas I and Empress Alexandra Feodorovna of [4] His throne stood since he was 8 years old -.. Unlike most of his predecessors on the throne of Russia since Peter I. - never in doubt [5]. accordance with the practice at the Russian Court Alexander as all Grand Duke was destined for a military career and was trained accordingly. [6] for the basics of education, therefore, a professional soldier and veteran of the Napoleonic wars was responsible for its 7th year, namely the German-born line officer Karl Merder. [7] Merder, who had previously been a teacher in a cadet corps his teaching skills to the test, [8] was over 10 years almost constantly in the immediate vicinity of Alexander and accompanied him on his trips abroad. [9 ] at the Merders stepped aside at the request of Empress Vasily Zhukovsky. [10] the liberal poet and reader of the Empress took the role of a mentor and tutor one. [11] Both main responsible educators made sure that Alexander the one hand, became state political armor, on the other hand but also was able to develop a developed personality. [12] as the actual teachers of the subjects the teachers entrusted excellent scientists and some the most important contemporary Russian politicians, such as the Senior Minister Alexander I, Michael Speranski. [13] It is worth noting that as in the case Speransky quite men were entrusted with the education of the heir, who stood in contrast to the extremely reactionary policy of Nicholas I.. [14] 1839 Alexander II learned. Later his wife, Princess Marie of Hesse and by Rhine, know that at the time was only 15 years old. The wedding took place on 4 Apriljul. / April 16 1841greg. instead. [15] Even against considerable resistance at the Tsar\'s court and even diplomatic interventions Alexander had asserted his choice. had this amazingly found his despotic political issues father [16] support, [17] the apparent his son in this issue did not want to stand in the way, although the marriage was considered \"politically inconvenient\". [18] Alexander\'s character is judged ambivalent: on the one hand he is as peaceful, wise and described favorably with a clear sense of the good, but on the other hand, he was also his own teachers as arrogant, fickle, little active and - as he admitted himself later - as to vindictiveness resentful. [19] Added to this was that his father he gave the Broad autocratic view in a way that Alexander despite all libertarian tendencies and reforms irrefutable stuck to this principle. [20] Moreover, the heir to the throne developed due to the strict military training, a penchant for all things military, resulting in at Wilhelm II. reminiscent foolish preference for military ceremonial arose. [21] military Expertise did not make Alexander II. however from, although he imagined this very well. [22] However, Alexander had like no other can gain deep insights into the governance even before the takeover of government responsibility, perceived [23] representative tasks, numerous trips taken abroad and in all Russian provinces, [24] often important government tasks perceived directly and in 1842 even the regency over for a month over the kingdom during the absence of his father. [25]
Regency Crimean War and government takeover Alexander II. Of Russia
When Alexander after his father\'s death on 18 Februarjul. / March 2 1855greg. the Tsar\'s throne, he was indeed with almost 37 years of a mature, well-educated and politically savvy man, [26], but he had the kingdom in a serious crisis to take, because Russia was in the Crimean War, and even if this under Alexander was initially continued unchanged, the war defeat recorded in the spring of 1855 significantly from [27] and was inevitable with the fall of Sevastopol. The Emperor visited in November itself Odessa and the Crimea and came here permanently to the realization that the war was lost. The Peace of Paris of 18 Märzjul. / March 30 1856greg. ended that war. [28] He weakened Russia\'s position of power in the East only temporary and meant no end to the Russian interest in the Turkish territories. [29] Even after this peace the submission of the Caucasian mountain peoples was continued while at the same time the vast areas between the Caspian Sea and the Aral Sea were brought under Russian influence and completely occupied in part. In terms of prestige as a great power, which presented itself as a hegemonic power since the Napoleonic Wars, and especially after the 1848 revolutions themselves, [30] but it was a serious - and after Stökl unnecessary as ineffective - humiliation of Russia, his demilitarization of the Black Sea ports imposed to have. [31] From this arose in Russia after overcoming a first shock due to the defeat of a religious-national mood, which was seeking revenge. [32] For the history of Russia, and especially the political beliefs of Alexander II. Course and defeat of the Crimean War had a deep cut. [33] The inability to defeat a in enemy territory operating and poorly led coalition force, showed Russia\'s backwardness in all areas of the economy the infrastructure (keyword railways) and education up to the army organization. [34] Therefore, the Crimean War, a beacon for Russian politics, as Alexander II. has used the Paris Peace to the basis for his political program of breaking the interwoven to provide cultural, economic and social restraints by the pulse from the outside. [35] Alexander was anxious to enter Russia as quickly as possible a public or a company, to so exist in his view, in competition with the other European powers can. [36] The \"Great Reforms\" In response to the defeat in the Crimean War, which came to light backwardness of Russia Alexander took far-reaching reforms, which are often described in the scientific literature with the attribute \"large\". [37] This reform one of the most important cuts in the history of Russia is , Hoetsch sees in them even a more significant reform work as the Peter the Great. [38] For green forest are the reforms \"at the roots of the revolution\". [39] The core of the reforms was the abolition of serfdom: already twelve days after the signing of the Paris Peace said the Emperor before the Moscow nobility, [40] Although like the possibility humanitarian \"it would be better to abolish serfdom, but wait that they will break.\" considerations have played a role was crucial, however, that serfdom was considered objectively obsolete as in economic terms. [41] Original objective of the reform activity was to make Russia economically, technically and ultimately militarily in Europe competitive again. [42] so it is not surprising that the conducted since 1861 abolition of serfdom with further reforms, including was a new military organization linked. Alexander put these reforms against great odds. He found support in addition to his brother Konstantin especially in the quite reformist bureaucracy. [43] Since the resistances of the fundamental and serf-owning nobility, however, were enormous, ultimately came a \"diluted\" compromise about. [44] Unlike the farmer exemptions in Prussia and Austria, where the farmers had received no land and so capital investment and then the delight of big landowners had been promoted, the Russian peasants were usually equipped with a permanent Nutzrecht of house and home, in proportion as they had previously worked the fields. [45] However, the frontal and interest charges against the landlords remained, and it was used for access to the Mir, a vested so did not exist. [46] were the nobles even the right, before the entry into force to implement the farmers nor to realign their Gutsland in its sole discretion. [47] Although there was a \"minimal set\", a tract of land that was to secure the subsistence level, [48] but the overreaching of the farmers in the Regulations and the fee payment was clear. [49] In determining the areas there were about much to the detriment of farmers, large regional differences. The farmers had the land available for purchase, the state take over the financing of such transactions. [50] A liberation of the peasants from the police power of the landowner took place immediately upon entry into force of the reform in 1861, because the country but remained in the collective ownership of the local farmers and the already previously usual periodic redistribution of land was committed, were the possibilities of farmers, self-determined economies, highly limited. [51] Alexander tried doing quite nobility and peasants to meet, but because of the - albeit insufficient - allocation of land to the peasants and forced management in the community, the production factors labor and land were insufficiently liberalized [52] Therefore, it was neither. significant capitalization effects in the nobility nor the formation of large masses of impoverished landless, who had fled as in Prussia in the cities and had there been a proto-industry as a proletariat available. [53] the population development in Russia also caused a deterioration of the situation since 1911 , ie 50 years after the abolition of serfdom, there has already been a doubling. [54] that were ruined a large part of the Russian nobility in a short time, because they were not able to adapt to the new economic Environment, [55] shows how ambiguous the reform is to be evaluated. On one hand, it was as the abolition of slavery in the United States three years ahead, [56] other hand, was and remained Russia until the 1920s an agricultural state. Also one, albeit small, part of the Jews of Tsarist these reforms came after a long period of repression and restrictions benefit. To promote the Russian economy, both Jewish merchants with more than 50,000 rubles income and Jews were granted with \"preferred\" occupations (eg. B. technicians and mechanics) a right of residence outside of the village in the west of the Empire Pale of Settlement. A vested rights were also Jews with academic degrees. (These provisions were again made by his son and successor, Alexander III. Largely reversed.) Wars and revolts Osip Ivanovich Kommissarow, the lifesaver of Tsar Alexander II.
1863, the Polish January Uprising was crushed with merciless hardness. The importance of reforms and the complete transformation of the economic conditions that had resulted in many people calling out rejection. As part of this dissatisfaction and as a result of the still existing large inequality in society is socialist, communist and nihilistic ideas spread and grew in importance. At the same time the victory over Poland strengthened nationalist sentiment and led to the emergence of Pan-Slavism. Alexander made no serious attempts to suppress corruption in the bureaucracy; Rather, he allowed corrupt officials in its immediate surroundings in high positions. Therefore, the discontent grew among the people against Alexander\'s reign continues. An on 4 Apriljul. / April 16 1866greg. [57] attempted by the revolutionary Dimitri Karakozov assassination of the emperor, which was prevented by the farmers Kommissarow, had extensive investigations on the episode that revealed the existence of numerous political secret societies. This and a second attack that was attempted by the Berezewski Poland during the Paris Exposition of 1867, exerted on the Emperor from a lasting impression and made his tendency to disappear reforms. Censorship was restored in old austerity and police established a comprehensive monitoring system. During the war between Austria and Prussia in 1866, Alexander kept a neutral, but prussia friendly attitude. Also during the Franco-German War of 1870-71 were Alexander\'s sympathies for Germany, which he showed to the Russian Field Marshal including through religious ceremonies to the German commander and by the appointment of Crown Prince Frederick. Alexander prevented Austria to the intervention in the war, when he threatened the occupation of Galicia by Russian troops, if Austria should mobilize. As a result of this war increased Alexander\'s influence: William I, German Emperor was the new, not only related to him, but he also committed out of gratitude for his support, while France strove for his benevolence in an eventual war of revenge. To a crisis occurred on August 15, 1879, when the Russian Emperor to the German Emperor was sent by the so-called slap letter. But Alexander kept his pro-German stance. Russia ended 1881 with the Emperors Wilhelm I of Germany and Franz Joseph I of Austria in Berlin the Three Emperors\' League. Thus, the long-standing tensions between Russia and Austria-Hungary were first reduced and temporarily consolidate the peace in Europe. Russia declared itself in a possible conflict between Germany and France for neutral and gained a free hand in the East. The expedition to Khiva in 1873 extended Russia\'s power in the interior of Asia considerably, but had initially no conflict with Great Britain resulted. Rather appeared in 1874 by the marriage of the only daughter of Alexander, Mary, Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, even to initiate a rapprochement between Russia and Great Britain. In May, Alexander graduated from a state visit to Britain. In the summer of 1874 an international conference was held in Brussels on the initiative of Alexander, which should adopt a convention on the laws and customs of war. However, the Declaration of Brussels never entered into force due to lack of ratifications. Meanwhile, he reorganized the army on German lines. Before this reorganization was complete, Alexander was pushed almost against his will by the spread of Pan-Slavism, especially in aristocratic circles and officials for involvement of Russia in the Balkans. He tolerated in the Balkan crisis, the support of Serbia and Montenegro by volunteers and funds, Pate was himself a son of the Serbian Prince Milan III. and took public for the Christians in the Ottoman Empire position. Sarcophagus of Alexander II., And his wife in the Peter and Paul Cathedral
In April 1877 Russia declared in the wake of the deposited Bulgarian April uprising the Ottoman Empire the war. Alexander moved to Bessarabia with Gorchakov, the advancing army of the Danube followed by Romania to Bulgaria and made his headquarters at Gorny Studen, where he remained during the military setbacks suffered by Russia in July to September. As another success was achieved with the fall of Pleven, he returned on 15 December 1877 back to Saint Petersburg, where he was received on 22 December with great jubilation. Even after the war, his position in the midst of warring directions in Russia remained difficult, especially for new attacks by nihilists 1879 to Alexander himself several attacks were carried out: on 14 April 1879 shot Alexander Konstantinovich Solovyov on him; on December 1, 1879 attempted nihilists, at Moscow the train, in the Alexander went on to blow; on 17 February 1880 was carried out another attack in the Winter Palace. In response, the monitoring and tracking of opponents of the regime was tightened. Alexander planned to continue reforms of society. Assassination The assassination of the Emperor Alexander II. (Gouache, Russia, 19th century.)
When Alexander II on 1.jul.. / March 13 1881greg. with its escort the Mikhailovsky Palace left in a carriage, this was taken after only a few meters in St. Petersburg Griboyedov Canal from a filled with dynamite box. The Emperor survived the explosion unharmed and wanted to go in the direction of the Winter Palace. But when it became the perpetrators of the attack, the student Nikolai Ryssakow, overwhelmed, he called the emperor: \"Do not Rejoice too early!\" A second assassin threw another explosive bomb that exploded at the feet of the emperor. For the rulers of any help came too late, he died after a few hours of his injuries on both legs. His then twelve year old grandson, the future Tsar Nicholas II., Witnessed the murder, which was (\"People\'s Will\") carried out by the underground organization Narodnaya Volya. At the site of the attack left his son Alexander III. build the Church of the Resurrection. His grave is that of all the Romanovs in the Peter and Paul Cathedral. [58]