SUPER RARE & Unusual Bhutan Buddhist Shamanic Exorcism Mask

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SUPER RARE & Unusual Bhutan Buddhist Shamanic Exorcism Mask:
$350.00

Extremely Rare

Unusual Bhutan Buddhist Shamanic Exorcism Mask

100% Hand Carved

THIS IS ONE OF THE MOST RARE AND UNIQUE MASKS IN MY COLLECTION. IT IS A RARE HAND CARVED HARD WOOD BHUTAN BUDDHIST SHAMANIC EXORCISM MASK. MASKS LIKE THIS ARE USED BY BUDDHIST MONKS OR SHAMAN IN RELIGIOUS RITUALS AND FESTIVALS. THESE MASK WERE ORIGINALLY DERIVED FROM THE TOTEM WORSHIPPING OF EITHNIC MINORITIES INNORTH & WESTERN CHINA, MONGOLIA, NEPAL AND TIBET. THIS IS NOT A REPRODUCTION, IT IS AN ORIGINAL MASK THAT WAS USED IN SHAMAN RITUALS. I WAS EXTREMELY FORTUNATE TO HAVE FOUND THIS RARE AND VALUABLE PIECE DURING MY A VISIT TO NEPAL SEVERAL YEARS AGO. ALTHOUGH I BOUGHT THE PIECE IN NEPAL, ITORIGINALLYCAME FROM BHUTAN AND I NOW HAVE THE HONOR OF PASSING ON TO YOU.

SIZE: APPROX 10 INCHES X 7 INCHES (CAN BE SEEN IN PHOTOS ABOVE)

MATERIALS: HARD WOOD (possibly ebony wood)

AGE: 19TH Century

DON\'T LET THIS UNIQUE OPPORTUNITY PASS YOU BY... BUY IT NOW!

THANKS FOR YOUR TIME AND CONSIDERATION.... DOBUYDON

SHIPPING (PLEASE READ)

I will ship your item via InternationalRegistered Air Mail as soon as payment is received. Registered Mail is the mostreliable and secure method of shipping and guarantees that your item willarrive. I have never lost any registered mail shipments. Normal shipping timeto most locations is 10-14 business days. Sometimes it can take longer… pleasebe patient. Onceyour shipment arrives, a signaturewill be required. If no one is available to sign for the shipment the postoffice should leave a notice and you may have to go pick up your item.

Expedited shipping viaInternational Express Mail Service (EMS) is available for an extra charge.Normal shipping time to most locations via EMS is 5 working days. Please emailme for a price quote if you desire express shipping.

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ONCE YOU RECEIVE YOURSHIPMENT-Iask that you please email and let me know that you have received the shipmentas soon as possible. If you are happy with the item and with the service that Ihave provided, I ask that you please leave POSITIVE response. I strive toprovide 5 STAR products and services...Thanks again for your support….Dobuydon.

Eastern end of theHimalayasand bordered to the south, east and west by theRepublic of Indiaand to the north by thePeople\'s Republic of China. Bhutan is separated from the nearby country ofNepalto the west by the Indian state ofSikkim, and fromBangladeshto the south by the Indian states ofAssamandWest Bengal.

Bhutan existed as a patchwork of minor warringfiefdomsuntil the early 17th century, when the area was unified byShabdrungNgawang Namgyal, who fled religious persecution in Tibet and cultivated a separate Bhutanese identity. In the early 20th century, Bhutan came into contact with theBritish Empire, after which Bhutan continued strong bilateral relations with India upon its independence. In 2006,Business Weekrated Bhutan thehappiest countryin Asia and the eighth-happiest in the world, based on a global survey.[9]

Bhutan’s landscape ranges fromsubtropicalplains in the south to the sub-alpineHimalayanheights in the north, with some peaks exceeding7,000 metres (23,000 ft). The state religion isVajrayana Buddhism, and the population of 691,141 is predominantlyBuddhist, withHinduismthe second-largest religion.[10]The capital and largest city isThimphu. In 2007, Bhutan made the transition fromabsolute monarchytoconstitutional monarchy, holding its first general election. Bhutan is a member of theUnited Nationsand theSouth Asian Association for Regional Cooperation(SAARC); it hosted thesixteenth SAARC summitin April 2010. The total area of the country has been reported as 38,394 square kilometres (14,824sqmi) since 2002.[1][2]The area had previously been reported as approximately 46,500km2(18,000sqmi) in 1997.[11]

Contents[hide]

1Etymology
2History
- 2.1Political reform and modernization
3Government and politics
4Military and foreign affairs
5Geography
6Wildlife
- 6.1Conservation significance
- 6.2Conservation issues
7Economy
8Administrative divisions
9Cities and towns
10Demographics
- 10.1Religion
- 10.2Languages
11Culture
12Sports
13Education
14Traffic and transport
15See also
16Notes
17References
18Further reading
19External links

[edit]Etymology

Names similar to Bhutan— includingBottanthis,Bottan,Bottanter— began to appear in Europe around the 1580s.Jean-Baptiste Tavernier\'s 1676Six Voyagesis the first to record the nameBoutan. However, in every case, these seem to have been describing not modern Bhutan but theKingdom of Tibet. The modern distinction between the two did not begin until well intoBogle\'s 1774 expedition— realizing the differences between the two regions, cultures, and states, his final report to theEast India Companyformally proposed labeling theDruk Desi\'s kingdom as \"Boutan\" and thePanchen Lama\'s as \"Tibet\". The EIC\'s surveyor generalJames Rennellfirst anglicized the French name as Bootan and then popularized the distinction between it and greater Tibet.[12]

17771786Two of Rennell\'s EIC maps, showing the division of \"Thibet or Bootan\" into separate regions.

The precise etymology of Bhutan is unknown, although it quite probably derives from theTibetanendonymBod, used forGreater Tibet. It is traditionally taken to be a transcription of \"end ofTibet\"), in reference to Bhutan\'s position as the southern extremity of the Tibetan plateau and culture.[13][14]

Locally, Bhutan has been known by many names. The earliest western records of Bhutan, the 1627Relacaoof thePortugueseJesuitsEstêvão CacellaandJoão Cabral, records its name variously asCambirasi(among theKoch Biharis[15]),Potente, andMon(an endonym for southern Tibet).[12]The first time a separate Kingdom of Bhutan did appear on a western map, it did so under its local name as \"Broukpa\".[12]Others includingLho Mon(\"Dark Southland\"),Lho Tsendenjong(\"Southland of theCypress\"),Lhomen Khazhi(\"Southland of the Four Approaches\") andLho Men Jong(\"Southland of theHerbs).[16][17]

[edit]HistoryMain articles:History of BhutanandTimeline of Bhutanese history

Stone tools, weapons,elephants, and remnants of large stone structures provide evidence that Bhutan was inhabited as early as2000 BC, although there are no existing records from that time. Historians have theorized that the state ofLhomon(literally, \"southern darkness\"), orMonyul(\"Dark Land\", a reference to theMonpa, theaboriginalpeoples of Bhutan) may have existed between 500 BC and AD 600. The namesLhomon Tsendenjong(SandalwoodCountry), andLhomon Khashi, or Southern Mon (country of four approaches), have been found in ancient Bhutanese and Tibetan chronicles.[18][19]

TheDzongin theParo valley, built in 1646

Buddhism was first introduced to Bhutan in the 7th century AD. Tibetan kingSongtsän Gampo[20](reigned 627–49), a convert to Buddhism, ordered the construction of two Buddhist temples, atBumthangin central Bhutan and at Kyichu (nearParo) in theParo Valley.[21]Buddhism was propagated in earnest[20]in 746[22]under King Sindhu Rāja (alsoKünjom;[23]Sendha Gyab; Chakhar Gyalpo), an exiledIndianking who had established a government in Bumthang at Chakhar Gutho Palace.[24]:35[25]:13

Tashigang monastery, built in 1659

BuddhistsaintPadma Sambhava(also known asGuru Rinpoche) came to Bhutan in in 747.[26]Much of early Bhutanese history is unclear because most of the records were destroyed when fire ravaged the ancient capital,Punakha, in 1827. By the 10th century, Bhutan\'s political development was heavily influenced by its religious history. Various sub-sects of Buddhism emerged which were patronized by the variousMongolwarlords. After the decline of theYuan Dynastyin the 14th century, these sub-sects vied with each other for supremacy in the political and religious landscape, eventually leading to the ascendancy of theDrukpasub-sect by the 16th century.[21][27]

Athrikheb(throne cover) from the 19th century. Throne covers were placed atop the temple cushions used by highlamas. The central circular swirling quadrune is theGankyilin its mode as the \"Four Joys\".

Until the early 17th century, Bhutan existed as a patchwork of minor warringfiefdoms, when the area was unified by the Tibetan lama and military leaderShabdrung Ngawang Namgyalwho had fled religious persecution in Tibet. To defend the country against intermittent Tibetan forays, Namgyal built a network of impregnabledzong(fortresses), andpromulgatedtheTsa Yig, a code of law that helped to bring local lords under centralized control. Many suchdzongstill exist and are active centers of religion and district CacellaandJoão Cabralwere the first recorded Europeans to visit Bhutan, on their way to Tibet. They met Ngawang Namgyal, presented him with firearms,gunpowderand atelescope, and offered him their services in the war against Tibet, but the Shabdrung declined the offer. After a stay of nearly eight months Cacella wrote a long letter from theChagri Monasteryreporting on his travels. This is a rare extant report of the Shabdrung.[28][29]After Ngawang Namgyal\'s death in 1651, his passing was kept secret for 54 years; after a period of consolidation, Bhutan lapsed into internal conflict. In the year 1711 Bhutan went to war against theMughal Empireand itsSubedars, who restoredKoch Biharin the south. During the chaos that followed, the Tibetans unsuccessfully attacked Bhutan in 1714.[30]

In the 18th century, the Bhutanese invaded and occupied the kingdom ofCooch Beharto the south. In 1772, Cooch Behar appealed to theBritishEast India Companywhich assisted them in ousting the Bhutanese and later in attacking Bhutan itself in 1774. A peace treaty was signed in which Bhutan agreed to retreat to its pre-1730 borders. However, the peace was tenuous, and border skirmishes with theBritishwere to continue for the next hundred years. The skirmishes eventually led to theDuar War(1864–65), a confrontation for control of theBengalDuars. After Bhutan lost the war, theTreaty of Sinchulawas signed betweenBritish Indiaand Bhutan. As part of thewar reparations, the Duars were ceded to theUnited Kingdomin exchange for a rent of Rs. 50,000. The treaty ended all hostilities between British India and Bhutan.

During the 1870s, power struggles between the rival valleys ofParoandTongsaled to civil war in Bhutan, eventually leading to the ascendancy ofUgyen Wangchuck, theponlop(governor) of Tongsa. From his power base in central Bhutan, Ugyen Wangchuck defeated his political enemies and united the country following several civil wars and rebellions during 1882–85.[31]

In 1907, an epochal year for the country, Ugyen Wangchuck was unanimously chosen as the hereditary king of the country by an assembly of leading Buddhist monks, government officials, and heads of important families. The British government promptly recognized the new monarchy, and in 1910 Bhutan signed theTreaty of Punakha, asubsidiary alliancewhich gave the British control of Bhutan\'s foreign affairs and meant that Bhutan was treated as an Indianprincely state. This had little real effect, given Bhutan\'s historical reticence, and also did not appear to affect Bhutan\'s traditional relations with Tibet. After the newUnion of Indiagainedindependencefrom the United Kingdom on 15 August 1947, Bhutan became one of the first countries to recognize India\'s independence. On 8 August 1949, a treaty similar to that of 1910, in which Britain had gained power over Bhutan\'s foreign relations, was signed with the newly independent India.[18]

In 1953, KingJigme Dorji Wangchuckestablished the country\'s legislature – a 130-memberNational Assembly– to promote a more democratic form of governance. In 1965, he set up a Royal Advisory Council, and in 1968 he formed a Cabinet. In 1971, Bhutan was admitted to theUnited Nations, having held observer status for three years. In July 1972,Jigme Singye Wangchuckascended to the throne at the age of sixteen after the death of his father, Dorji Wangchuck.

Bhutanese refugeesof ethnic Nepalese descent who fled to Nepal in the early 1990s

In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the country expelled or forced to leave nearly one fifth of its population in the name of preserving its Tibetan Mahayana Buddhist culture and identity.[32]TheLhotshampas, the ethnic group persecuted by the Bhutanese government, were subject to \"harassment, arrests and the burning of ethnic Nepali homes.\"[33]The government enacted discriminatory citizenship laws against the Lhotshampas, stripping about one-fifth of its population of citizenship. A harassment campaign escalating in the early 1990s ensued, and afterwards Bhutanese security forces began expelling people after making them renounce claims to their homes and homeland. A refugee recounted, “The army took all the people from their houses. As we left Bhutan, we were forced to sign the document. They snapped our photos. The man told me to smile, to show my teeth. He wanted to show that I was leaving my country willingly, happily, that I was not forced to leave.”[34]Due to the violence, Bhutanese of Nepali origin, mainly Hindu, fled their homeland. According to theUNHCR, more than 107,000Bhutanese refugeesliving in seven camps in EasternNepalhave been documented as of 2008.[35]After many years in refugee camps, many are now moving to host nations such as Norway, the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States as refugees. TheUnited Stateshas admitted 30,870 refugees from fiscal years 2008 through 2010.[36]Still, in July 2010, the Bhutanese prime minister,Jigme Y. Thinley, called the Bhutanese refugees illegal immigrants.[37]

[edit]Political reform and modernizationFurther information:Law of BhutanandConstitution of Bhutan

KingJigme Singye Wangchuckintroduced significant political reforms, transferring most of his administrative powers to the Council of Cabinet Ministers and allowing forimpeachmentof the King by a two-thirds majority of the National Assembly.[38]

In 1999, the government lifted a ban ontelevisionand theInternet, making Bhutan one of the last countries to introduce television. In his speech, the King said that television was a critical step to themodernisationof Bhutan as well as a major contributor to the country\'sGross National Happiness(Bhutan is the only country to measure happiness),[39]but warned that the \"misuse\" of television could erode traditional Bhutanese values.[40]

A newconstitutionwas presented in early 2005. In December 2005, Jigme Singye Wangchuck announced that he wouldabdicatethe throne in his son\'s favor in 2008. On 14 December 2006, he announced that he would be abdicating immediately. This was followed by the first nationalparliamentary electionsinDecember 2007andMarch 2008.

On November 6, 2008, 28-year oldJigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, eldest son of KingJigme Singye Wangchuck, was crowned King.[41]

[edit]Government and politicsMain article:Politics of BhutanView ofTashichoedzong,Thimphu, seat of the Bhutanese government since 1952.

Bhutan\'s political system has developed from anabsolute monarchyinto aconstitutional monarchy. In 1999, the fourth king of Bhutan created a body called theLhengye Zhungtshog(Council of Ministers). TheDruk Gyalpo(King of Druk Yul) ishead of state.Executive poweris exercised by the Lhengye Zhungtshog, the council of ministers.Legislative powerwas vested in both thegovernmentand the formerGrand National Assembly.

On the 17th of December 2005, the 4th King,Jigme Singye Wangchuck, announced to a stunned nation that the first general elections would be held in 2008, and that he would abdicate the throne in favor of his eldest son, the crown prince.[42]KingJigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchucktook the throne on December 14, 2006 upon his father\'s abdication. Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck was adorned with Bhutan\'s Raven Crown at an ornate coronation ceremony in Thimphu on Thursday, November 6, 2008, becoming the world\'s youngest reigning monarch and head of the newest democracy.[43]

The new political system comprises an upper and lower house, the latter based on political party affiliations.Electionsfor the upper house (National Council) were held on December 31, 2007, whileelectionsfor the lower house, the 47-seatNational Assembly, were held on March 24, 2008. Two political parties, thePeople\'s Democratic Party(PDP) headed bySangay Ngedup, and theDruk Phuensum Tshogpa(DPT) headed byJigmi Thinley, competed in the National Assembly election. The Druk Phuensum Tshogpa won the elections taking 45 out of 47 seats in the parliament.[44]

Judicialpower is vested in thecourtsof Bhutan. TheChief Justiceis theadministrativehead of theJudiciary.

[edit]Military and foreign affairsMain articles:Military of BhutanandForeign relations of Bhutan

TheRoyal Bhutan Armyis Bhutan\'s military service. It includes theRoyal Bodyguardand theRoyal Bhutan Police. Membership is voluntary, and the minimum age for recruitment is 18. The standing army numbers about 16,000 and is trained by theIndian Army.[45]It has an annual budget of about$13.7 million — 1.8 percent of the GDP. Being alandlocked country, Bhutan has no navy. It also has no air force or army aviation corps. The Army relies on Eastern Air Command of the Indian Air Force for air assistance.

In 2007, Bhutan andIndiasigned a new treaty that clarified that Bhutan was master of its own foreign relations, superseding the treaty signed in 1949. The superseded treaty is still sometimes misinterpreted to mean that India controls Bhutan\'s foreign affairs, but the government of Bhutan handles all of its own foreign affairs, including the sensitive (to India) border demarcation issue withChina.

Bhutan has diplomatic relations with 21 countries, and with theEuropean Union, with missions in India,Bangladesh,Thailand, andKuwait. It has twoUNmissions, one in New York and one inGeneva. Only India and Bangladesh have residential embassies in Bhutan, while Thailand has a consulate office in Bhutan.

Map of Bhutan showing border with China as of 2010

By a long standing treaty, Indian and Bhutanese citizens may travel to each other\'s countries without apassportorvisausing their national identity cards instead. Bhutanese citizens may also work in India without legal restriction. Bhutan does not have formal diplomatic ties with its northern neighbour, thePeople\'s Republic of China, although exchanges of visits at various levels between the two have significantly increased in recent times. The first bilateral agreement between China (PRC) and Bhutan was signed in 1998, and Bhutan has also set up honorary consulates inMacauandHong Kong. Bhutan\'s border with China is largely not demarcated and thus disputed in some places. Approximately 269 square kilometers remain under discussion between China and Bhutan.[46]

On 13 November 2005, Chinese soldiers crossed into the disputed territories between China and Bhutan, and began building roads and bridges.[47]Bhutanese Foreign MinisterKhandu Wangchuktook up the matter with Chinese authorities after the issue was raised in the Bhutanese parliament. In response, Foreign Ministry spokesman Qin Gang of the People\'s Republic of China has said that the border remains in dispute and that the two sides are continuing to work for a peaceful and cordial resolution of the dispute.[48]An Indian intelligence officer has said that a Chinese delegation in Bhutan told the Bhutanese that they were \"overreacting.\" The Bhutanese newspaperKuenselhas said that China might use the roads to further Chinese claims along the border.[47]

On 8 February 2007, the Indo-Bhutan Friendship Treaty was substantially revised. The Treaty of 1949, Article 2 states: \"The Government of India undertakes to exercise no interference in the internal administration of Bhutan. On its part the Government of Bhutan agrees to be guided by the advice of the Government of India in regard to its external relations.\" In the revised treaty it now reads as \"In keeping with the aoffering ties of close friendship and cooperation between Bhutan and India, the Government of the Kingdom of Bhutan and the Government of the Republic of India shall cooperate closely with each other on issues relating to their national interests. Neither government shall allow the use of its territory for activities harmful to the national security and interest of the other.\" The revised treaty also includes this preamble: \"Reaffirming their respect for each other\'s independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity\", an element that was absent in the earlier version. The Indo-Bhutan Friendship Treaty of 2007 clarifies Bhutan\'s status as an independent and sovereign nation.

Bhutan maintains formaldiplomatic relationswith severalAsianandEuropeannations,Canada, andBrazil. Other countries, such as theUnited Statesand theUnited Kingdom, have no formal diplomatic relations with Bhutan, but maintain informal contact through their respective embassies inNew Delhiand Bhutanese honorary consulates inLondonandWashington, D.C.[49][50][51]

[edit]GeographyMain article:Geography of BhutanHaa ValleyTopographic map of BhutanGangkhar Puensumfrom Ura La, Bhutan

Bhutan is located on the southern slopes of the EasternHimalayas, landlocked between theTibet Autonomous Regionto the north and the Indian states ofSikkim,West Bengal,AssamandArunachal Pradeshto the west and south. It lies between latitudes26°and29°N, and longitudes88°and93°E. The land consists mostly of steep and highmountainscrisscrossed by a network of swift rivers, which form deep valleys before draining into the Indian plains. Elevation rises from 200m (660ft) in the southern foothills to more than 7,000m (23,000 ft). This great geographical diversity combined with equally diverse climate conditions contributes to Bhutan\'s outstanding range of biodiversity and ecosystems.[2]

The northern region of the country consists of an arc ofEastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadowsreaching up to glaciated mountain peaks with an extremely cold climate at the highest elevations. Most peaks in the north are over 7,000m (23,000 ft) above sea level; the highest point in Bhutan isGangkhar Puensumat 7,570 metres (24,840 ft), which has the distinction of being thehighest unclimbed mountainin the world.[3]The lowest point, at 98m (322ft), is in the valley ofDrangme Chhu, where the river crosses the border with India.[3]Watered by snow-fed rivers, alpine valleys in this region providepasturefor livestock, tended by a sparse population of migratory shepherds.

TheBlack Mountainsin the central region of Bhutan form a watershed between two major river systems: theMo Chhuand theDrangme Chhu. Peaks in the Black Mountains range between 1,500 and 2,700 m (4,900 and 8,900 ft) above sea level, and fast-flowing rivers have carved out deep gorges in the lower mountain areas. The forests of the central Bhutan mountains consist ofEastern Himalayan subalpine conifer forestsin higher elevations andEastern Himalayan broadleaf forestsin lower elevations. Woodlands of the central region provide most of Bhutan\'s forest production. TheTorsa,Raidak,Sankosh, andManasare the main rivers of Bhutan, flowing through this region. Most of the population lives in the central highlands.

In the south, theShiwalik Hillsare covered with denseHimalayan subtropical broadleaf forests, alluvial lowland river valleys, and mountains up to around 1,500m (4,900ft) above sea level. The foothills descend into the subtropicalDuarsPlain. Most of the Duars is located in India, although a 10 to 15 km (6.2 to 9.3 mi) wide strip extends into Bhutan. The Bhutan Duars is divided into two parts: the northern and the southern Duars. The northern Duars, which abuts the Himalayan foothills, has rugged, sloping terrain and dry,poroussoil with dense vegetation and abundant wildlife. The southern Duars has moderately fertile soil, heavysavannahgrass, dense, mixed jungle, and freshwater springs. Mountain rivers, fed by either the melting snow or the monsoon rains, empty into theBrahmaputra Riverin India. Data released by the Ministry of Agriculture showed that the country had a forest cover of 64% as of October 2005.

The climate in Bhutan varies with elevation, from subtropical in the south totemperatein the highlands andpolar-typeclimate, with year-round snow in the north. Bhutan experiences five distinct seasons: summer,monsoon, autumn, winter and spring. Western Bhutan has the heavier monsoon rains; southern Bhutan has hot humid summers and cool winters; central and Eastern Bhutan is temperate and drier than the west with warm summers and cool also:List of mammals of BhutanTheTakinis Bhutan\'snational animal.

More than 770 species of bird and 5,400 species of plants are known to occur throughout the kingdom. Bhutan has a rich primate life with rare species such as thegolden langur.[52][53]Recently, a variant Assamese macaque, which is also regarded by some authorities as a new species,Macaca munzalahas also been recorded.[54]

TheBengal tiger,Greater One-horned Rhinoceros,clouded leopard,hispid hareand thesloth bearlive in the lush tropical lowland and hardwood forests in the south. In the temperate zone,grey langur, tiger,Indian leopard,goralandseroware found in mixed conifer, broadleaf and pine forests. Fruit bearing trees and bamboo provide habitat for theHimalayan black bear,red panda,squirrel,sambar,wild pigandbarking deer. The alpine habitats of the great Himalayan range in the north are home to thesnow leopard,blue sheep,marmot,Tibetan wolf,antelope,Himalayan musk deerand thetakin, Bhutan\'snational animal. The endangered Wild Water Buffalo occurs in southern Bhutan although in small numbers.[55]

Among birds, the globally endangeredWhite-winged Wood Duckhas been added recently to the list of Bhutan\'s avifauna.[56]

[edit]Conservation significanceMain article:List of protected areas of BhutanJigme DorjiMotithangWangchuck SingyePhibsooRoyal ManasSaktengProtected areas of Bhutanin lavender,biological corridorsin green.

The EasternHimalayashave been identified as a globalbiodiversityhotspot and counted among the 234 globally outstandingecoregionsof the world in a comprehensive analysis of global biodiversity undertaken byWWFbetween 1995 and 1997.

Bhutan is seen as a model for proactiveconservationinitiatives. The Kingdom has received international acclaim for its commitment to the maintenance of its biodiversity. This is reflected in the decision to maintain at least sixty percent of the land area underforestcover, to designate more than 40%[57][58]of its territory as national parks, reserves and other protected areas, and most recently to identify a further nine percent of land area as biodiversity corridors linking the protected areas. Environmental conservation has been placed at the core of the nation\'s development strategy, the middle path. It is not treated as a sector but rather as a set of concerns that must be mainstreamed in Bhutan\'s overall approach to development planning and to be buttressed by the force of law.

[edit]Conservation issuesFurther information:Environmental issues in BhutanThe most endangered Asia top predator of 2010, thedholeis on the edge ofextinction. Fewer than 2500 members of the species remain in the world.

Although Bhutan\'s natural heritage is still largely intact, the Government has said that it cannot be taken for granted and that conservation of the natural Environment must be considered one of the challenges that will need to be addressed in the years ahead.

Pressures on the natural Environment are already evident and will be fuelled by a complex array of forces. They include population pressures, agricultural modernisation, poaching, hydro-power development, mineral extraction, industrialisation, urbanisation, sewage and waste disposal, tourism, competition for available land road construction and the provision of other physical infrastructure associated with social and economic development.

Policy implementation needs to be continually improved. Sustainable rural livelihoods that do not rely solely upon natural resource use need to be developed and supported, and there needs to be far wider understanding of the Environmental threats that come hand in hand with development, to ensure the future of Bhutan\'s rich and diverse Environment.

In practice, the overlap of these extensive protected lands with populated areas has led to mutual habitat encroachment. Protected wildlife has entered agricultural areas, trampling crops and killing livestock. In response, Bhutan has implemented an insurance scheme, begun constructing solar powered alarm fences, watch towers, and search lights, and has provided fodder and salt licks outside human settlement areas to encourage animals to stay away.[59]

[edit]EconomyMain article:Economy of BhutanThengultrumis the currency of BhutanGraphical depiction of Bhutan\'s product exports in 28 color coded categories.

Thengultrumis the currency of Bhutan and its value isfixedto theIndian rupee. The rupee is also accepted aslegal tenderin the country.

Though Bhutan\'s economy is one of the world\'s smallest, it has grown rapidly in recent years, by eight percent in 2005 and 14 percent in 2006. In 2007, Bhutan had the second fastest growingeconomyin the world, with an annual economic growth rate of 22.4 percent. This was mainly due to the commissioning of the giganticTalaHydroelectricity project. As of March 2006, Bhutan\'sper capita incomewas US$1,321.

Bhutan\'s economy is based onagriculture,forestry,tourismand the sale ofhydroelectric powerto India. Agriculture provides the main livelihood for more than 80 percent of the population.Agrarianpractices consist largely ofsubsistence farmingandanimal husbandry. Handicrafts, particularly weaving and the manufacture of religious art for home altars, are a smallcottage industry. A landscape that varies from hilly to ruggedly mountainous has made the building of roads and otherinfrastructuredifficult and expensive. This, and a lack of access to the sea, has meant that Bhutan has not been able to benefit from significant trading of its produce. Bhutan does not have anyrailways, thoughIndian Railwaysplans to link southern Bhutan to its vast network under an agreement signed in January 2005.[60]Bhutan and India signed a \'free trade\' accord in 2008, which additionally allowed Bhutanese imports and exports from third markets to transit India withouttariffs.[61]Bhutan had trade relations with theTibet regionuntil 1960, when it closed its border with China after an influx of refugees.[62]

The industrial sector is in a nascent stage, and though most production comes from cottage industry, larger industries are being encouraged and some industries such ascement,steel, andferroalloyhave been set up. Most development projects, such as road construction, rely on Indian contract labour. Agricultural produce includes rice, chilies, dairy (some yak, mostly cow) products, buckwheat, barley, root crops, apples, and citrus and maize at lower elevations. Industries include cement,woodproducts, processed fruits, alcoholic beverages andcalcium caroffere.

Incomes of overNu100,000per annumare taxed, but very few wage and salary earners qualify. Bhutan\'s inflation rate was estimated at about three percent in 2003. Bhutan has aGross Domestic Productof aroundUSD2.913 billion (adjusted toPurchasing Power Parity), making it the 162nd largest economy in the world. Per capita income is around $1,400,[3]ranked 124th. Government revenues total $272 million, though expenditures amount to $350 million. 60 percent of the budget expenditure, however, is financed by India\'s Ministry of External Affairs.[note 1][63]Bhutan\'s exports, principally electricity,cardamom,gypsum,timber, handicrafts, cement, fruit, precious stones andspices, total€128 million (2000 est.). Imports, however, amount to €164 million, leading to atrade deficit. Main items imported vehicles, fabrics andrice. Bhutan\'s main export partner is India, accounting for 58.6 percent of its export goods.Hong Kong(30.1 percent) andBangladesh(7.3 percent) are the other two top export partners.[3]As its border with Tibet is closed, trade between Bhutan and China is now almost non-existent. Bhutan\'s import partners include India (74.5 percent), Japan (7.4 percent) and Sweden (3.2 percent).

[edit]Administrative divisionsMain articles:Districts of Bhutan,Blocks of Bhutan, andLocal Government Act of Bhutan 2009

Bhutan is divided into twentydzongkhags(districts), administered by a body called the Dzongkhag Tshogdu. In certainthromdes(urban municipalities), a further municipal administration is directly subordinate to the Dzongkhag administration. In the vast majority of constituencies, ruralgewogs(village blocks) are administered by bodies called the Gewog Tshogde.[64]

Thromdes (municipalities) elect Thrompons to lead administration, who in turn represent the Thromde in the Dzongkhag Tshogdu. Likewise, gewogs elect headmen calledgups, vice-headmen calledmangmis, who also sit on the Dzongkhag Thshogdu, as well as other members of the Gewog Tshogde. The basis of electoral constituencies in Bhutan is thechiwog, a subdivision of gewogs delineated by the Election of Bhutan[65]

Bumthang
Chukha(Chhukha)
Dagana
Gasa
Haa
Lhuntse
Mongar
Paro
Pemagatshel(Pemagatsel)
Punakha
Samdrup Jongkhar
Samtse(Samchi)
Sarpang(Sarbhang)
Thimphu
Trashigang(Tashigang)
Trashiyangtse
Trongsa(Tongsa)
Tsirang(Chirang)
Wangdue Phodrang(Wangdi Phodrang)
Thimphu, the largest city and capital of Bhutan.
Damphu, the administrative headquarters ofTsirang District
Jakar, the administrative headquarters ofBumthang Districtand the place where Buddhism entered Bhutan.
Mongar, the Eastern commercial hub of the country.
Paro, site of theinternational airport.
Phuentsholing, Bhutan\'s commercial hub.
Punakha, the old capital.
Samdrup JongkharThe south Eastern town on the border with India
Trashigang, administrative headquarters ofTrashigang Districtthe most populous district in the country.
Trongsa, in central Bhutan which has the largest and the most magnificent of all thedzongsin Bhutan.

Bhutanese people primarily consist of theNgalopsandSharchops, called the Western Bhutanese and Eastern Bhutanese respectively. TheLhotshampa, meaning \"southerners,\" are a heterogeneous group of mostlyNepalesedescent. The Ngalops primarily consist of Bhutanese living in the western part of the country. Their culture is closely related to that of Tibet. Much the same could be said of the Sharchops, the dominant group, who traditionally follow theNyingmaparather than the officialDrukpa Kagyuform ofTibetan Buddhism. In modern times, with improved transportation infrastructure, there has been much intermarriage between these groups. In the early 1970s, intermarriage between theLhotshampasand mainstream Bhutanese society was encouraged by the government, but after the late 1980s, the Bhutanese government forced about 108,000 Lhotshampas from their homes, seized their land, and expelled them to refugee camps.[33]

Theliteracy ratein Bhutan is 59.5 percent.[66]The country has a median age of 24.8 years.[67]Bhutan has alife expectancyof 62.2 years (61 for males and 64.5 for females) according to the latest data from theWorld Bank. There are 1,070 males to every 1,000 females in the country.

[[File:|border|120px|Samdrup Jongkhar]]
Samdrup JongkharSamdrup PhodrangWangdue Phodrang3,3009Taga of Goemba or \"Tiger\'s nest\" of Buddhism in Bhutan. Located on a cliff 900 meters high, Parowan city -maps.googleMain article:Religion in Bhutan

It is estimated that between two thirds and three quarters of the Bhutanese population followVajrayana Buddhism, which is also thestate religion. About one quarter to one third are followers ofHinduism. Other religions account for less than 1% of the population.[68]The current legal framework, in principle guaranteesfreedom of religion;proselytism, however, is forofferden by a royal government decision[68]and by judicial interpretation of theConstitution.[69]

Buddhism was introduced to Bhutan in the 7th century AD. Tibetan kingSongtsän Gampo(reigned 627–49), a convert to Buddhism, ordered the construction of two Buddhist temples, atBumthangin central Bhutan and at Kyichu (nearParo) in theParo Valley.[21]

The national language is Bhutanese, orDzongkha, one of 53 languages in theTibetan languagefamily. The script, here calledChhokey(\"Dharma Language\"), is identical to classical Tibetan. In the schools English is the medium of instruction and Dzongkha is taught as the national language.Ethnologuelists 24 languages currently spoken in Bhutan, all of them in theTibeto-Burmanfamily, exceptNepali, anIndo-Aryan language. Until the 1980s, the government sponsored the teaching of Nepali in schools in Southern Bhutan. However, after the armed uprising in the south, Nepali was dropped from the curriculum. The languages of Bhutan are still not well-characterized, and several have yet to be recorded in an in-depth academic grammar. Before the 1980s, theLhotshampa(Nepali-speaking community), mainly based in southern Bhutan, constituted approximately 30% of the population.[70]However, during the 1980s, after the Bhutanese government instituted a policy of one language and one culture, theseLhotshampaswere forced to wear the national costume of Bhutan, which is not well-suited to the high temperatures of the southern region.[70]This cultural discrimination led to protests which eventually resulted in the eviction of more than 100,000 Lhotshampas throughout the 1990s.[35]These Lhotshampas took refuge in Nepal via India. Because the bilateral talks between Nepal and Bhutan to repatriate Bhutanese refugees (Lhotshampas) have been proven futile, theUNHCRis now helping therefugeesto settle in various developed countries such as Norway, USA, Canada and many others.[32][35]

Dzongkha is partially intelligible withSikkimeseand spoken natively by 25% of the population.Tshangla, the language of the Sharchop and the principal pre-Tibetan language of Bhutan, is spoken by a greater number of people. It is not easily classified and may constitute an independent branch of Tibeto-Burman.Nepalispeakers constituted some 40% of the population as of 2006. The larger minority languages areDzala(11%),Limbu(10%, immigrant), andKheng(8%). There are no reliable sources for the ethnic or linguistic composition of Bhutan, so these numbers do not add up to 100%.

Bhutan has a rich and unique cultural heritage that has largely remained intact because of its isolation from the rest of the world until the early 1960s. One of the main attractions for tourists is the country\'s culture and traditions. Bhutanese tradition is deeply steeped in its Buddhist heritage.[71][72]Hinduismis the second dominant religion in Bhutan, being most prevalent in the southern regions.[73]The government is increasingly making efforts to preserve and sustain the current culture and traditions of the country. Because of its largely unspoiled natural Environment and cultural heritage, Bhutan has been referred to asThe LastShangri-la.[74]

While Bhutanese citizens are free to travel abroad, Bhutan is viewed as inaccessible by many foreigners. Another reason for it being an unpopular destination is the cost, which is high for tourists on tighter budgets. Entry is free for citizens of India and Bangladesh, but all other foreigners are required to sign up with a Bhutanese tour operator and pay around US$250 per day that they stay in the country.[75]

The national dress for Bhutanese men is thegho, a knee-length robe tied at the waist by a cloth belt known as thekera. Women wear an ankle-length dress, thekira, which is clipped at one shoulder and tied at the waist. An accompaniment to the kira is a long-sleeved blouse, thetoego, which is worn underneath the outer layer. Social status and class determine the texture, colours, and decorations that embellish the garments. Differently coloured scarves and shawls are important indicators of social standing, as Bhutan has traditionally been afeudalsociety. Jewellery is mostly worn by women, especially during religious festivals (tsechus) and public gatherings. To strengthen Bhutan\'s identity as an independent country, Bhutanese law requires all Bhutanese citizens to wear the national dress in public areas and as formal wear.

Rice,buckwheat, and increasinglymaize, are the staples ofBhutanese cuisine. The local diet also includespork,beef,yakmeat,chicken, andmutton. Soups and stews of meat and dried vegetables spiced with chillies and cheese are prepared.Ema datshi,made very spicy withcheeseandchilies, might be called the national dish for its ubiquity and the pride that Bhutanese have for it.Dairyfoods, particularlybutterand cheese from yaks andcows, are also popular, and indeed almost all milk is turned to butter and cheese. Popular beverages includebutter tea,tea, locally brewedara(rice wine) andbeer. Bhutan is the first country in the world to have banned the sale ofTobaccounder itsTobacco Act of 2010.[28]

Bhutanese architectureremains distinctively traditional, employingrammed earthandwattle and daubconstruction methods, stone masonry, and intricate woodwork around windows and roofs. Traditional architecture uses no nails or iron bars in construction.[28][76][77]Characteristic of the region is a type of castle fortress known as thedzong. Since ancient times, the dzongs have served as the religious and secular administration centres for their respective districts.[78]TheUniversity of Texas at El Pasoin the United States has adopted Bhutanese architecture for its buildings on campus, as have the nearby Hilton Garden Inn and other buildings in the city of El Paso.[79]

Bhutan hasnumerous public holidays, most of which centre around traditional seasonal, secular and religious festivals. They include thewinter solstice(around January 1, depending on thelunar calendar), the lunar New Year (February or March), the King\'s birthday and the anniversary of his coronation, the official end ofmonsoonseason (September 22), National Day (December 17), and various Buddhist and Hindu celebrations.

Masked dances and dance dramas are common traditional features at festivals, usually accompanied by traditional music. Energetic dancers, wearing colourful wooden or composition face masks and stylized costumes, depictheroes,demons,dæmons, death heads, animals,gods, andcaricaturesof common people. The dancers enjoy royal patronage, and preserve ancientfolkand religious customs and perpetuate the ancient lore and art of mask-making.

Themusic of Bhutancan generally be divided into traditional and modern varieties; traditional music comprises religious and folk genres, the latter includingzhungdraandboedra.[80]The modernrigsaris played on a mix of traditional instruments and electronic keyboards, and dates back to the early 1990s; it shows the influence of Indian popular music, a hybrid form of traditional and Western popular influences.[81][82]

In Bhutanese families, inheritance generally passes through the female rather than the male line. Daughters will inherit their parents\' house. A man is expected to make his own way in the world and often moves to his wife\'s home.Love marriagesare common in urban areas, but the tradition ofarranged marriagesis still common in the villages. Although uncommon,polygamyis accepted, often being a device to keep property in a contained family unit rather than dispersing it.[83]The previous king,Jigme Singye Wangchuck, who abdicated in 2006, had four queens, all of whom are sisters. The current king,Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, wed Jetsun Pema, 21, a commoner and daughter of a pilot, on 13 October 2011.

Bhutan\'s national sport isarchery, and competitions are held regularly in most villages. It differs fromOlympicstandards in technical details such as the placement of the targets and atmosphere. There are two targets placed over 100 meters apart and teams shoot from one end of the field to the other. Each member of the team shoots two arrows per round. Traditional Bhutanese archery is a social event and competitions are organized between villages, towns, and amateur teams. There are usually plenty of food and drink complete with singing and dancing. Attempts to distract an opponent include standing around the target and making fun of the shooter\'s ability. Darts (khuru) is an equally popular outdoor team sport, in which heavy wooden darts pointed with a 10cm nail are thrown at a paperback-sized target 10 to 20 meters away.

Another traditional sport is theDigor, which resembles theshot putandhorseshoethrowing.Crickethas gained popularity in Bhutan, particularly since the introduction of television channels from India. TheBhutan national cricket teamis one of the more successful affiliate nations in the region.Footballis also an increasingly popular sport. In 2002, Bhutan\'s national football team playedMontserrat, in what was billed asThe Other Final; the match took place on the same day Brazil played Germany in theWorld Cup final, but at the time Bhutan and Montserrat were the world\'s two lowest ranked teams. The match was held in Thimphu\'sChanglimithang National Stadium, and Bhutan won 4–0. A documentary of the match was made by the Dutch filmmaker Johan Kramer.